Unit I
ATMOSPHERE
INTRODUCTION
The horizontal movement of air along the earth’s surface is called a Wind. The vertical
movement of the air is known as an air current. Winds and air current together comprise a
system of circulation in the atmosphere.
TYPES OF WINDS
On the earth’s surface, certain winds blow constantly in a particular direction throughout
the year. These are known as the ‘Prevailing Winds’. They are also called the Permanent or the
Planetary Winds. Certain winds blow in one direction in one season and in the opposite direction
in another. They are known as Periodic Winds. Then, there are Local Winds in different parts of
the world.
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1. Planetary Winds:
There are three main planetary winds that constantly blow in the same direction all
around the world. They are also called prevailing or permanent winds.
1. Trade Winds:
Blow from the subtropical high pressure belt towards the Equator. They are called the
north-east trades in the northern hemisphere and south-east trades in the southern hemisphere.
2. Westerly winds:
Blow from the same subtropical high pressure belts, towards 60˚ S and 60˚ N latitude.
They are called the sought Westerly wind sin the northern hemisphere and North Westerly winds in
the southern hemispheres.
3. Polar Winds
Blow from the polar high pressure to the sub polar low pressure area. In the northern
hemisphere, their direction is from the north-east. In the southern hemisphere, they blow from
the south-east.
2. Periodic Winds
These winds are known to blow for a certain time in a certain direction - it may be for a
part of a day or a particular season of the year.
Example 1: Land and Sea breeze
During the day, near an ocean, sea or
lake, the land heats up faster than the water.
The air above the land also gets heated. As
warm air rises, it draws cooler air from over the
water to blow towards the land, creating a sea
breeze.
At night, the opposite conditions
prevail. The land loses heat rapidly while the
sea is still warm. The air resting over the land
is cold while the air resting over the sea is
warm and rises creating a low pressure area. A
land breeze thus blows in from the high
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pressure over the land towards the water. These land and sea breezes maintain air circulation in
the coastal areas and have a moderating effect on the temperatures.
Example 2: Monsoons
They are land and sea breezes on a large scale. The
word ‘monsoon’ comes from the Arabic word ‘mausim’
meaning weather. They change or reverse their directions
according to the seasons. Strong contrasts in temperature
between summer and winter because great differences in
pressure conditions over the interior parts of the big continents like Asia. Hence winds blow
onshore from a sea to the land in summer and from land to the sea in winter. The onshore winds
bring moisture and heavy rainfall while the offshore winds are relatively dry. Although the
monsoons are associated with south-east USA, Australia, parts of South America and East Africa
they are most effective over south-east Asia and India blows from June to September while the
winter monsoons prevails from October to December.
Example 3: Mountain and Valley Breezes (tertiary circulation)
During the day, the valley heats up, so the warm less dense air flows up the mountain,
creating a valley breeze.
At night, the mountain will cool off faster than the valley, so the cool mountain air
descends because it is more dense, creating a mountain breeze.
3. Local Winds
On the earth’s surface, some local variations of temperature on the land may cause
changes in air pressure. As a result local winds blow. They blow in a particular season and are
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known by the local names in that region. For instance, the hot dry, dusty winds that blow in the
month of May and June over the northern plains in India are called Loo.
Some other examples of local winds that bring unusual changes in the temperature of the
places are the warm Chinooks that devour the snow on the leeward side of the Rocky mountains
of North America, the Foehn in the Swiss Alps and the hot, sand laden Siocco that blows over
Southern Europe from the Sahara and causes ‘blood rain’ which is actually desert sand and dust
that falls with the rain.
There are still other types of winds that are irregular and keep changing their direction and
blow in an area for a very short time, such as tornadoes, typhoons and cyclones.
CAUSES OF VARIATION OF WINDS
The movement and the speed of wind are affected by three main factors
1. Pressure Gradient Force
The change in pressure measured across a given distance is called a "pressure gradient".
The pressure gradient results in a net force that is directed from high to low pressure. The
magnitude of the force depends on
1) How great the pressure difference is between the high pressure area and low pressure area
2) how far apart the two pressure areas are from each other. A large difference in pressure combined
with pressure areas that are close to each other will cause a huge pressure gradient which produces a
strong wind.
2. Coriolis Effect
The Coriolis Effect (also called the Coriolis force) is defined as the apparent deflection of
objects (such as airplanes, wind, missiles, and ocean currents) moving in a straight path relative to
the earth's surface.
If the Earth did not rotate upon its axis, winds would
follow the direction of the pressure gradient. But the
rotation produces another force other than the pressure
force. It is called the ‘Coriolis force’.
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Causes air to move in a curved path
It is caused by the Earth spinning on its axis
The Earth spins fastest at the equator, and
slowest near the poles
As air moves from the equator to the pole, it
will travel east faster than the land beneath it
causing the air to follow a curved path
So the Coriolis effect causes wind flowing
from high pressure to low pressure to curve as
the wind moves
In the Northern Hemisphere, the Coriolis effect causes things to curve to the Right
In the Southern Hemisphere, the Coriolis effect causes things to curve to the Left
3. Friction
The surface of the Earth exerts a frictional drag on the air blowing just above it. This
friction can act to change the wind's direction and slow it down -- keeping it from blowing as fast as
the wind aloft. Actually, the difference in terrain conditions directly affects how much friction is
exerted. For example, a calm ocean surface is pretty smooth, so the wind blowing over it does not
move up, down, and around any features. By contrast, hills and forests force the wind to slow down
and/or change direction much more.
ATMOSPHERIC BOUNDARY LAYER
The planetary boundary layer (PBL), also known as the atmospheric boundary layer
(ABL), is the lowest part of the atmosphere and its behavior is directly influenced by its contact
with a planetary surface. Above the PBL is the "free atmosphere" where the wind is
approximately geostrophic (parallel to the isobars) while within the PBL the wind is affected by
surface drag. The free atmosphere is usually non-turbulent.
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Structure of the Planetary Boundary Layer
The PBL can be subdivided into four separate component layers: the surface layer, the
mixed layer, the stable layer, and the residual layer. We will discuss each of these in turn.
(or)
1. Mixed Layer(or) Convective Boundary Layer (CBL)
During the daytime, surface heating leads to convective motion in the PBL. Heat transfer
from the surface forms rising warm air. Radiative cooling from clouds forms sinking cooler air.
Convective motion also leads to significant turbulence which mixes the air within this layer.
Because of the convective motion and significant mixing of air, this sub-layer is called the
convective layer or mixed layer. Above the mixed layer is a stable layer which prevents the
continued upward motion of thermals. This stable layer also restricts turbulence, preventing
frictional influences from reaching above the PBL. This stable layer is called the entrainment
zone, because it is here where air from above the PBL entrains into the mixed layer. During the
day, the mixed layer reaches heights over 1 km and make up the entire layer of the PBL above
the surface layer. However, the mixed layer vanishes with the sun as the thermally driven
convection ceases.
2. Stable Layer(or) Nocturnal Boundary Layer (NBL)
After sunset, convective motion dramatically decreases. However, the earth's surface still
affects the air, and a stable boundary layer forms (also called the nocturnal boundary layer). This
boundary layer is charaterized by light winds and weaker, more sporadic turbulence than in the
mixed layer. The height of the PBL, therefore, decreases significantly during the night. Though
the height of the nocturnal layer varies, it is usually less than half that of the mixed layer. Unlike
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the mixed layer, the stable boundary layer does not have a well-defined top. Instead, it slowly
merges with the residual layer.
3. Residual Layer
As turbulence and the mixed layer decay with sunset, the air maintains many of the state
variables that the well-mixed air had. This layer is called the residual layer (because its
properties are residuals of the mixed layer) and forms above the stable boundary layer. While the
nocturnal boundary layer has a very stable profile, the residual layer tends to have more of a
neutral profile. The residual layer does not have contact with the earth's surface, and so is not
influenced by turbulent stresses like the stable boundary layer below it. The residual layer is
bounded above by a capping inversion, which approximates the height of the daytime height of the
mixed layer. This inversion simply prevents entrainment from aloft.
Because the residual layer is not influenced directly by the earth's surface (i.e. no
turbulent stresses) it is not considered a boundary layer. However, we include it in our discussion
for descriptive purposes. Only the mixed layer and stable layer are true boundary layers.
4. Mixing Height (or) Gradient Height (or) Height of the PBL
Because turbulent fluxes vary based on surface heating and other factors, the height of the
PBL also varies. At night, the height of the PBL decreases dramatically as the stable layer forms.
The height of the PBL is called the mixing height, because it is the height up to which the air is
well-mixed. The mixing height is very important to air quality experts when determining air
pollution dispersion. We will cover this more in the Focus on Air Quality section. Meanwhile, we'll
look at some of the factors which influence the PBL.
EFFECT OF TERRAIN ON GRADIENT HEIGHT
For winds near ground surface, frictional effects play a significant role. Ground
obstruction retard the movement of air close to the ground surface, causing a reduction in wind
speed.
At some height above ground, the movement of air is no longer affected by ground
obstruction. This height is called gradient height (ZG) which is a function of ground roughness.
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The unobstructed wind speed is called gradient wind speed (VZg) and it is considered to be
constant above gradient height.
Wind Profile
Wind profile is the variation of mean wind speed with height above [Link] is usually
represented by power law or logarithmic law.
1. Power law
The Power law, which is used by some engineers to represent variation of wind speed with
height, is an empirical equation, which for the case of mean speeds takes the form of
Where,
Vz, Vzg = the wind speeds at height Z, Zg respectively, and
α
= the power law exponent.
(Zg and α are functions of ground roughness)
2. Logarithmic law
The Logarithmic law is used by both engineers and meteorologists. It is based on physics of
the boundary layer and it is valid in the bottom 20 to 30% of the boundary layer.
Where,
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Table 1: Typical values of parameters in wind profiles based on effect of terrain type
Mean
Terrain Gradient Roughness
Terrain description speed
category height length
exponent
Zg (m) Zo (m)
α
1 Open sea, ice, tundra, desert 250 0.001 0.11
Open country with low scrub or scattered
2 300 0.03 0.15
trees
Suburban areas, small towns, well
3 400 0.3 0.25
wooded areas
Numerous tall buildings. City centers,
4 500 3 0.36
well developed industrial areas
Figure: Variation of wind speed with height for different terrain types
The turbulence created is higher in rougher terrain than in smoother terrain. Turbulence
decreases with increasing height above ground.
Turbulence Intensity
The most commonly used parameter to define turbulence in time domain isturbulence
intensity. It is a measure of the relative amplitude of the fluctuationscompared to the mean
component of wind. It is expressed as:
�
��=
��
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Where,
Tu = The turbulence intensity.
σ = The root mean square of wind speed, and
VZ= The mean wind speed.
Turbulence intensity decreases with height since the mean wind speed increasesand the
fluctuation of wind decreases.
Simulation Techniques in Wind Tunnel
Wind tunnel simulation is primarily used to test the aerodynamics of and visualize flows around an
object. A wind tunnel simulator can help the engineering design process by optimizing lift and drag,
increasing top speed, detecting and eliminating high wind speed zones, and reducing wind noise for
automotive, aerospace, and building planning and construction operations. Yet with this type of
experimentation comes increased prototyping, manufacturing lead times, and operational costs. Wind
tunnel testing is often combined with computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations.
BOUNDARY LAYERS AND SEPARATION:
Whenever there is relative movement between a fluid and a solid surface, whether externally round a
body, or internally in an enclosed passage, a boundary layer exists with viscous forces present in the
layer of fluid close to the surface. Boundary layers can be either laminar or turbulent. A reasonable
assessment of whether the boundary layer will be laminar or turbulent can be made by calculating
the Reynolds number of the local flow conditions.
Flow separation or boundary layer separation is the detachment of a boundary layer from a surface into
a wake. Separation occurs in flow that is slowing down, with pressure increasing, after passing the
thickest part of a streamline body or passing through a widening passage, for example.
Flowing against an increasing pressure is known as flowing in an adverse pressure gradient. The
boundary layer separates when it has travelled far enough in an adverse pressure gradient that the speed
of the boundary layer relative to the surface has stopped and reversed direction. The flow becomes
detached from the surface, and instead takes the forms of eddies and vortices. The fluid exerts a
constant pressure on the surface once it has separated instead of a continually increasing pressure if still
attached. In aerodynamics, flow separation results in reduced lift and increased pressure drag, caused
by the pressure differential between the front and rear surfaces of the object. It causes buffeting of
aircraft structures and control surfaces. In internal passages separation causes stalling and vibrations in
machinery blading and increased losses(lower efficiency) in inlets and compressors. Much effort and
research has gone into the design of aerodynamic and hydrodynamic surface contours and added
features which delay flow separation and keep the flow attached for as long as possible. Examples
include the fur on a tennis ball, dimples on a golf ball, turbulators on a glider, which induce an early
transition to turbulent flow; vortex generators on aircraft.
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EFFECT OF REYNOLDS NUMBER ON WAKE FORMATION OF BLUFF SHAPES
A body moving through a fluid
experiences a drag force, which is usually
divided into two components: frictional
drag, and pressure drag. Frictional drag
comes from friction between the fluid and
the surfaces over which it is flowing. This
friction is associated with the
development of boundary layers, and it
scales with Reynolds number as we have
seen above. Pressure drag comes from the
eddying motions that are set up in the
fluid by the passage of the body. This
drag is associated with the formation of a
wake, which can be readily seen behind a
passing boat, and it is usually less
sensitive to Reynolds number than the frictional drag. Formally, both types of drag are due to
viscosity (if the body was moving through an aninviscid fluid there would be no drag at all), but
the distinction is useful because the two types of drag are due to different flow phenomena.
Frictional drag is important for attached flows (that is, there is no separation), and it is related to
the surface area exposed to the flow. Pressure drag is important for separated flows, and it is
related to the cross-sectional area of the body.
We can see the role played by friction drag (sometimes called viscous drag) and pressure
drag (sometimes called form drag or profile drag) by considering an airfoil at different angles of
attack. At small angles of attack, the boundary layers on the top and bottom surface experience
only mild pressure gradients, and they remain attached along almost the entire chord length. The
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wake is very small, and the drag is dominated by the viscous friction inside the boundary layers.
However, as the angle of attack increases, the pressure gradients on the airfoil increase in
magnitude. In particular, the adverse pressure gradient on the top rear portion of the airfoil may
become sufficiently strong to produce a separated flow. This separation will increase the size of
the wake, and the pressure losses in the wake due to eddy formation Therefore the pressure drag
increases. At a higher angle of attack, a large fraction of the flow over the top surface of the
airfoil may be separated, and the airfoil is said to be stalled. At this stage, the pressure drag is
much greater than the viscous drag.
When the drag is dominated by
viscous drag, we say the body is
streamlined, and when it is dominated by
pressure drag, we say the body is bluff.
Whether the flow is viscous-drag dominated
or pressure-drag dominated depends entirely
on the shape of the body. A streamlined
body looks like a fish, or an airfoil at small
angles of attack, whereas a bluff body looks
like a brick, a cylinder, or an airfoil at large
angles of attack. For streamlined bodies, frictional drag is the dominant source of air resistance.
For a bluff body, the dominant source of drag is pressure drag. For a given frontal area and
velocity, a streamlined body will always have a lower resistance than a bluff body. For example,
the drag of a cylinder of diameter D can be ten times larger than a streamlined shape with the
same thickness (see figure).
Cylinders and spheres are considered bluff bodies because at large Reynolds numbers the
drag is dominated by the pressure losses in the wake. The variation of the drag coefficient with
Reynolds number is shown in figure, and the corresponding flow patterns are shown in figure.
We see that as the Reynolds number increases the variation in the drag coefficient (based on cross-
sectional area) decreases, and over a large range in Reynolds number it is nearly constant.
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(a) Drag coefficient as a function of Reynolds number for smooth circular cylinders and
smooth spheres
(b) Flow patterns for flow over a cylinder: (A) Reynolds number = 0.2; (B) 12; (C) 120; (D)
30,000; (E) 500,000. Patterns correspond to the points marked on figure 2.
At a Reynolds number between 10^5 and 10^6, the drag coefficient takes a sudden dip.
The size of the wake decreases, indicating that the boundary layer separation on the cylinder or
sphere occurs further along the surface than before. What has happened? The phenomenon is
related to the differences between laminar and turbulent boundary layer. The boundary layer and
its interaction with the local pressure gradient plays a major role in affecting the flow over a
cylinder. In particular, near the shoulder, the pressure gradient changes from being negative
(decreasing pressure) to positive (increasing pressure). The force due to pressure differences
changes sign from being an accelerating force to being a retarding force. In response, the flow
slows down. However, the fluid in the boundary layer has already given up some momentum
because of viscous losses and viscous friction, and it does not have enough momentum to
overcome the retarding force. Some fluid near the wall actually reverses direction, and the flow
separates.
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