Scientific endeavour

Qualitative data
5 senses to make observations

Quantitative data
Measurements that are numerical quantities of an object/phenomenon

A scientific question is usually accompanied by a proposed explanation for an observation. This

proposed explanation is a hypothesis.

Independent variable: what you can decide to change in an experiment

Dependent variable: What you can observe in an experiment
Unchanged variables: Things you do to keep the same (variables that cannot be changed)

Conducting experiments and testing solutions

The readings taken from the instruments are expressed as a numerical value with a unit.

Zero error: a type of error that an instrument gives a non-zero reading when the measured
quantity should be zero.

Zero error is consistent because when another is added/removed, there will still be
a reading、

Parallax error: introduced into a measurement when the marking on an instrument is viewed
from the wrong angle
Properties of Matter
Metal
● Shiny
● Good conductor of heat
● Can be moulded into shapes
● Can be bent without breaking

Glass
● Transparent
● Poor conductor of electricity
● Poor conductor of heat
● Can be moulded into shapes
● Fragile

Fibers
● Can be spun into threads and woven into fabrics
● Able to absorb dyes
● Poor conductor of electricity
● Poor conductor of heat

Plastic
● Lightweight
● Does not corrode
● Has a low melting point
● Poor conductor of electricity
● Poor conductor of heat

Ceramic
● Made from clay
● Hard
● Poor conductor of electricity
● Can be moulded into shapes
● Does not corrode
● Has a high melting point
● Fragile

Electrical conductivity:
Measure how easily an electric current flows through it.

E.g.
Copper is used in making electrical wires because of its high electrical conductivity
Plastic is used to make the outer covering of wires because of its low electrical conductivity.

Thermal conductivity
The measure of how easily heat flows through an object

E.g. Metal is used for a cooking pan’s body because of its high thermal conductivity, which
allows heat to spread quickly and evenly across the pan’s surface

Plastic is used for the handle of a cooking pan because of its low thermal conductivity.

Melting and boiling points

Melting point: The temperature at which an object changes from its solid state to its liquid
state.

Boiling point: the temperature at which an object changes from its liquid state to its gaseous
state

Strength
Ability to support a heavy load without changing its state permanently.

Hardness
Resistance of a material to wear and tear, and scratches

Flexibility
Ability to bend without breaking, and return to its original shape and size after bending

Malleability
Ability to be hammered into thin sheets without breaking

Density
Amount of matter an object has in proportion to its volume (density=mass/volume)(must write
in questions when they ask you to find density.)
A digital calliper is used to measure the lengths of objects.

Ductility
Ability to be stretched into a piece of wire

Viscosity
Liquid’s resistance to flow

E.g honey and oil have a high viscosity compared to water

Alloy
Alloy is a mixture of metal with other elements.

Use:
Increase the strength of a metal
Lower the melting point of a metal
Enhance appearance of a metal
Elements
Element is a pure substance made up of only one type of atom and cannot be broken down into
simpler substances by any chemical process.

Compounds consist of 2/more elements that are chemically combined in a chemical reaction,
such, carbon dioxide.

Sodium chloride is commonly known as common salt. It is used as a food preservative.

Sodium hydrogencarbonate is commonly known as baking soda. It comprises the elements

sodium, hydrogen, carbon,n, and oxygen. It is used in baking and as an antacid to reduce
unpleasant effects when the stomach produces too much acid..id.

Ammonia is made of the elements nitrogen and hydrogen. It can be used for cleaning.

A compound does not have the same properties as its constituent elements.

A compound cannot be separated into its constituent elements easily.

Elements combine chemically to form compounds.

Compounds, e., water, carbon dioxide, sodium chloride, have different properties from the
elements they are made up of. This allows us to make informed decisions on the use of matter
and understand its benefits and harmful effects, e.g., melamine in plastics. Harmful effects:
melamine in milk powder)

A compound cannot be broken down with any physical method, except chemical reactions.

A mixture is made up of 2/ more elements and/or compounds that are not chemically
combined.

Air is a mixture. It contains various substances such as nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
water vapour. The air in different places may contain the same substances in different
amounts.

Mixtures can be made up of both elements and compounds

A mixture has the same characteristics as its constituents.

A solution is a mixture in which one substance dissolves completely in another substance. The
substance that dissolves is called the solute. The substance in which the solute dissolves is
called the solvent.

E.g.: sugar dissolves in water to form a sugar solution.

Given a fixed volume of water, a solution with a low percentage of dissolved solute is known as
a dilute solution, while a solution with a high percentage of dissolved solute is known as a
concentrated solution.

When a rate of solute dissolves completely in a solvent, we say that it is soluble. Substances
that do not dissolve in a given solvent are considered insoluble.

The rate of dissolving refers to how quickly a solute dissolves in a solvent.

Some factors affecting the rate of dissolving are:

● Size of solute particles
● Temperature of the solvent
● Rate of stirring

The solubility of a solute is different from its rate of dissolving. Solubility refers to the largest
amount of solute that can dissolve in a fixed volume of a particular solvent at a specific
temperature.

Some factors that affect the solubility are:

Type of solvent
Type of solute

A suspension is a mixture that contains insoluble substances in a solvent.

Solutions are made up of solute and solvent, which affect the rate of dissolving and the
solubility, e.g. muddy water

Solution vs suspension

Solution:
 ● Particles of the solute cannot be seen
● The solute does not settle to form solid deposits
● Light can pass through fully

Suspension
● Insoluble substances can be seen.
● Insoluble substances can settle to form solid deposits
● Light cannot pass through fully

Sustainable living through the choice of materials that are made up of matter that can be
classified into elements, compounds, and mixtures

Elements are arranged based on their properties in the Periodic Table of Elements, metallic and
non metallic.

Mixtures can be solutions and suspensions.

Sieve/filter paper is used to separate the solute and solvent if the solute cannot be dissolved.
Separation
Separation

Magnetic substances such as iron and steel are attracted to a magnet. Steel is a mixture of iron
and other elements. Other substances, such as plastic and paper, are non-magnetic. Thus, we
can use a magnet to separate magnetic substances from non-magnetic substances.

Filtration is the process of separation of substances of different particle sizes using a sieve.
(The particles left in the filter paper are called a residue, while the liquid collected is the filtrate.)

Evaporation is the process used to obtain a dissolved solid(solute) from a liquid(solvent).

(The solid left behind is called the residue.)

Substances that boil at different temperatures can be separated using distillation, which is
when a mixture is boiled and the vapour of the substance with the lowest boiling point in the
mixture enters the condenser first. This vapour then condenses when it comes into contact with
a surface of a lower temperature.

Distillation is a process that separates substances with different boiling points through boiling
and condensation.

Some applications of distillation include:

● Making perfumes
● Producing distilled water
● Making food flavourings
 ● Obtaining drinking water from seawater

Many inks and dyes are mixtures of coloured substances. To separate the substances in these
mixtures, paper chromatography is used.

Chromatography is used to separate small amounts of substances that dissolve to different

extents in a particular solvent. Can be used to find solubility of substances

Reverse osmosis removes undesirable contaminants, which include viruses.

Light
Shown as rays of light

Light rays can reflect off anything

Sources of light give out light

Reflection is light bouncing off a surface.

Plane mirrors, convex(curve outwards) concave(curve inwards) mirrors

E.g. concave mirrors are used in car headlights, convex mirrors are used on the
road to see behind a corner

Images on plane mirrors are the same size, upright, laterally inverted and virtual

Images on convex mirrors are smaller, upright, laterally inverted and virtual

Images on concave mirrors are bigger, upright, laterally inverted and virtual

The roughness of the surface affects the reflection.

Refraction is when light passes through two different media.

If the medium is denser than the previous medium, light would bend towards the
normal. (glass and water denser than air)

If the medium is less dense than the previous medium, light would bend away from
the normal.

Dispersion of light occurs as each colour has a different speed. (Red orange green
blue indigo violet)
Cells
Cell

Animal cells from animal and have numerous small vacuoles

Plant cells from plant and have one big vacuole and have cell wall and chloroplasts

Cell membrane controls what goes in and out of cell

Cytoplasm is jelly like substance within the cell where chemical reactions happen

Nucleus controls all activities within the cell and contains genetic information for reproduction

Vacuoles store substances

Cell wall provides shape and support

Chloroplast contains chlorophyll and make food from sunlight

microscope

Microscope for viewing small thing but make big when seeing

Eyepiece is lens

Fine and coarse adjustment nobs is for raising or lowering the stage

Stage is where the substance is

Objective lens has different magnification, eg 4, 40, 100, etc

Organisation of cells

Cells → tissues → organs → systems → organism

Tissues are groups of similar cells(same function) working together to perform a specific
function.
E.g. nerve muscle

Organs are a group of tissues with different functions working together to perform a specific
function.
E.g. Brain

Systems are a group of organs working together to perform a specific function.

Organisms are a group of systems working together to support a whole living organism.

Division of labour refers to the way a cell performs specific functions in a coordinated way.

Advantage:

Different functions can be carried out at the same time

It ensures the smooth and efficient functioning of the organism as a whole.

Matter
Solid
Fixed shape
Fixed volume
Cannot be compressed

Movement of particles of solid

The particles of a solid are closely packed and regularly arranged.

They vibrate about their fixed positions
There is very little space between the particles for them to move closer together. Thus,
a solid cannot be compressed.
The particles are held together by strong forces of attraction.

Liquid
Not fixed shape
Fixed volume
Cannot be compressed

Movement of particles of liquid

The particles in a liquid are slightly further apart from one another compared to those in
a solid.
They move randomly and slide past one another.
There is little space between the particles for them to move closer together. Thus, a
liquid cannot be compressed.
The forces of attraction are slightly weaker than those of a solid.

Gas
Not fixed shape
Not fixed volume
Can be compressed

Movement of particles of gas

The particles are far apart and arranged in a disorderly manner.

They move randomly and quickly in all directions.
There is a lot of space between the particles for them to move closer together. Thus, a
gas can be compressed.
The forces of attraction are weak.

The particles in a gas are far apart from one another. There is a lot of space between
the particles for them to move closer together. Hence, a gas can be compressed.

All particles move about randomly because they are getting bombarded by air particles.
This is called Brownian motion.

Processes

Expansion

When a substance in the solid state is heard, its particles gain energy and vibrate more
vigorously about their fixed positions. The distances between the particles increase.
This causes the volume of the substance to increase. As a result, the substance
expands.
No change in mass of the object before and after heating (conservation of mass)

The average distance between the particles increases after heating.

The volume of the object increases after heating → Density increases

Molecules vibrate more rapidly

E.g.

There are gaps in railway tracks to allow for expansion and contraction of metal on hot
and cold days. If there are no gaps, the railway tracks will push against on another
during expansion on a hot day, this may weaken the joins of the tracks and cause the
tracks to break away from one another.

Melting

The particles in the solid gain energy when heated, so their average kinetic energy
increases. Hence they vibrate more vigorously. At the melting point, the particles gain
enough energy to overcome very strong attractive forces that hold them in their fixed
positions.

Boiling

The particles in the liquid gain energy when heated, so their average kinetic energy
increases. At the boiling point, the particles gain enough energy to overcome strong
attractive forces that hold them in a confined space

Condensation

The particles in a gas lose energy to their surroundings during cooling, so their average
kinetic energy decreases. At the condensation point(same as boiling point), the particles
lose enough energy to allow strong attractive forces to be formed between them to hold
them closely packed together.

Freezing

The particles in a liquid lose energy to their surroundings during cooling, so their
average kinetic energy decreases. At the freezing point, the particles lose enough
energy to allow strong attractive forces to be formed to hold them very closely packed
together.

Answer format for describing processes

The particles in a ___ gain / lose energy when heated / cooled, so their average kinetic
energy increases/decreases. At the ___ point, the particles gain / lose enough energy to
overcome / allow strong attractive forces that hold them in their fixed positions/ to hold
them closely packed together.

Diffusion

DIffusion is the net movement of a substance from a region where it is in higher

concentration to a region where it is in lower concentration.

Diffusion in gas
Atoms and Molecules
Atoms are the smallest particles of an element.

Compounds contain multiple types of atoms.

An atom consists of a nucleus.

The nucleus contains protons (positive charge) and neutrons(neutral charge) so it is positive.

Electrons(negative charge) move around the nucleus at high speed in regions known as
electron shells.

Atoms have a neutral net charge.

1st electron shell can hold 2 electrons

2nd electron shell can hold up to 8 electrons

3rd electron shell can hold up to 8 electrons

Atomic number is the number of protons / electrons in a nucleus.

Atomic mass is the number of protons and neutrons.

Ions are atoms that do not have neutral net charge that lose electrons.

Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons.