KAGUMO TEACHERS TRAINING COLLEGE

RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION

LECTURER: MUREITHI, J .(2021)
Course Outline
Objectives
a) Define research and educational research.
b) Identify and explain types of research.
c) Discuss the importance of research in education.
d) Discuss ethical issues in educational research.
e) Outline the steps in research process.
f) Explain the steps in research process of a research proposal.
g) Explain the components of a research proposal.
h) Write a research proposal.
i) Explain the method of data collection & analysis.
j) Components and qualities of a research report.
k) Sources of research funding.
l) Challenges in research.
Introduction to Education Research
The following factors will be discussed:
 Research
 Education research
 Importance of research in education
 Types of research according to:
a) Purpose and function
 Pure/ basic research.
 Applied research.
 Action Research.
b) Type of data
 Quantitative research.
 Qualitative research.
c) Methods/procedure
 Descriptive research.
 Evaluative research.
 Correlational research.
 Case study.
 Historical research.
 Experimental research.
 Ethnographic
 Importance of research in education
 Ethnographic issues in research
Research process
1 Identification of the research problem
 Meaning of research problem.
 Sources of research problem
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  Qualities of a good research problem
 Variables of a research problem
 Dependent variables
 Independent variables
 Extraneous variables
Objective of the study
 Stating the objective of the study
 Importance of the objective of the study
 Qualities of good objective of the study
Hypothesis of the study
 Definition of hypothesis
 Types of hypothesis null hypothesis & alternative hypothesis
 Research questions
 Stating research questions.
 Qualities of good research questions.
2 Literature review
 Sources of literature
 Importance of literature review
 Organization of literature review
 Theoretical literature
 Empirical literature
 Citation of the materials sourced from various publications
 Internet
 Focus on American psychical association(APA)
3. Research design and sampling methods
 Research designs
 Types of research designs
 Factors determining the choice of a given research design
 Importance of research design in research
[Link]
 Define the term population & census with ex
 Qualities of a population
 Importance of defining a population in a study
 sample & sampling procedures
 sampling frame and sample size
 sampling methods
 probability & non probability methods
 importance of sampling in research
 sampling error
4. Data collection procedures
 types of data
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  methods of data collection
a. Participant observation
b. Non participant observation
c. Document analysis.
d. Interviews schedules
e. Focus group discussion
 Validity and reliability of instruments
5. Data analysis & interpretation
 Discuss the methods of data analysis and tools used to test hypothesis
6. Report writing & dissemination of findings
 Qualities of a good report
 Discussion of finding
 Summary of findings
 Conclusions & recommendations

 Components of a research proposal

 Components of a research report
 Sources of funding for research
 Challenges in research
Definition of research
It is a systematic process of identifying a problem, data collection, analysis & interpretation with
a view to solving the problem.
Definition of educational research: Systematic process of identifying a problem, data
collection, analysis & interpretation with a view to solving an education problem.
Concerns or problems in education include;
a. Poor curriculum implementation.
b. Low teacher motivation.
c. Teacher turnover.
d. Poor students’ academic performance.
e. Student indiscipline.
f. Drug and substance abuse in schools.
g. Mismanagement of funds.
h. Gender disparity in education opportunities.
Research methods
They are specific activities designed to carry out research which includes methods of data
collection and analysis.
Research methodology – Systematic strategy & steps in solving a research problem which
includes research methods.
TYPES OF RESEARCH

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They are based on;
 Purpose and functions
 Type of data
 Methods & procedures for research purpose functions
Types of research in terms of purpose & functions;
A. Pure/ fundamental/ basic research
Research primarily taken to acquire new knowledge of underlying foundation of a phenomenon
without regard to a particular application.
Characteristics
 Builds new knowledge.
 Often purely of theoretical in nature.
 It is of no immediate practical use.
 Relies on support theories that explain how the world operates.
 Mainly academic in nature.
 Takes places in a controlled environment.
 Increases understanding of fundamental procedures.
 It is explanatory in nature.
Advantages of basic research
 Provides basic knowledge necessary for making application reality.
 It is a precursor for a solution to a problem.
 Cultivates scientific climate conducive for understanding the objectives of technology.
 It is a source of intellectual standards for applied research venture.
 Provides basis of training people working in the industry & technical set up.
 It is the net exporter of technique to industry.
Disadvantages
 Findings may not be of immediate use.
 It is costly in terms of time & resources.
 It is a highly risky process without certainty of producing expected results.
 Inherent risk can be a major impediment to private enterprise which expects immediate
returns.
 It is subject effective per review mechanism.
 The outcome does not give direct economic value.
Applied research
It is a type of research that applies basic principles and theories to provide a practical solution to
a problem.
Characteristics
 Applies theoretical principles to solve a problem.
 It is conducted in specialized laboratories.
 Conducted by specialized research teams.
 It is conducted for government or industries.
 The research can be explanatory but it is usually descriptive.
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  Involves collection & analysis of data to examine usefulness of theories &
principles.
 Involves précised measurement of the characteristics of a phenomenon
 Describe relationships among the variables.
 Fits in the scientific method of inquiry.
Characteristics
1. It is designed to solve problems of the modern world.
2. It takes advantage of opportunities such as new markets & products.
3. The findings are of intermediate use.
4. Utilizes multiple sources of data.
5. It is guided by scientific theories & principles.
6. Can be of immediate economic value.
7. Forms the basis of innovation.
8. Provides the link between researches & industry.
Disadvantages
 Targets on developing human conditions not knowledge.
 Can be a time consuming exercise.
 Requires heavily investment in resources.
 Requires specialized skill.
 Can be manipulated to fit the whims of interested parties.
Action research
It is the type of research initiated to solve an immediate problem, to improve quality and
performance without necessary using scientific methods.
Characteristics
 Focuses on immediate solution to a problem.
 Provides awareness for innovation.
 Provides basis for reconstruction & reforms in operational plans.
 It is away to develop self confidence among stakeholders.
 It is an exercise that aims at bridging between theory and practice.
 It is situational as it focuses on a specific problem on a given context.
 It involves small scale interactions at organization at departmental level.
Advantages
1. Data is used to guide implementation of policies.
2. Used to guide improvement efforts.
3. Results are of immediate use.
4. It is highly participatory in the diagnosis of a research problem.
5. Leads to actions that lead to change in the environment.
6. Reveals underlying problems that impact on achievement of set goals.
7. Helps to develop a culture of data based inquiry.
8. Provides a reflection on the performance of an individual in an organization.
Disadvantages
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 1. Takes place a small scale which can’t be extended to a broader context
2. Lacks meaningful participation as it is difficult to involve all stake holders in a setting or
seeking a solution to a problem
3. Group involvement may lead to competing research agenda.
4. It is time consuming especially due to its participatory nature.
5. Require high research skills and competence
6. May lack the necessary objectivity and validity
2) Types of data
Quantitative research
Research that involves collection and analysis of numerical data.
Qualitative research
Research that involves collection and analysis of data collected inform of words.

Characteristics and differences between quantitative and qualitative research

Quantitative research Qualitative research
Numerical data is collected Data is collected inform of words

It is deductive which involves working from It is inductive which involves data

general to specific to confirm hypothesis or collection to generate hypothesis and
theories theories

Human behavior is regular and predictive Behavior is dynamic

Objective are descriptive and explanatory Objectives are exploratory & discovery

Focus is narrow as it tests specific hypothesis Examines the depth of hypothesis

Behavior is studied in controlled conditions Behavior is studied in uncontrolled context

Study is objective Study is subjective

Data is collected using structured and Data is collected using unstructured

validated data collection instruments such as instruments such as in-depth interviews and
close ended questionnaires and rating scales focused group discussion and open ended
questionnaires

Data analysis involves identifying statistical Data analysis involves search for patterns
relationship themes and holistic features

Findings can be generalized to a large Findings are particularistic representing

population insider’s view point

The final report involves correlations, Final report involves narrative with
comparisons and statistical significance contextual description and direct quotation
from research participants

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Advantages of quantitative research
1. Results can be generalized to a wider population.
2. Data analysis takes less time as statistical software can be used.
3. It is suitable when carrying out large scale baseline surveys.
4. Can provide quantitative measures useful in policy formulation.
5. Numerical data is considered more effective as the researcher is detached from the research.
6. It is easy to make comparison & relationship among the variables.
7. Useful in testing theories and hypothesis.
8. Numerical data is highly reliable.
Disadvantages
 Data interpretation can be difficult especially inferential statistics.
 Create artificial environment which may not apply in real life setting
 Issue of human feelings and experience is overlooked
 Uses static and rigid approaches
 Provide narrow and unrealistic information touching small caution on the concept under
study
 The findings may have low validity if the instrumental are faulty
 Statistical models developed become obsolete due to dynamism of knowledge
Advantages of Qualitative research
 Provide detailed description of particular feelings and opinions.
 Provide deeper insight into issues of interest to the researcher.
 Provides holistic understanding of experiences
 Has a flexible structure as the design can be constructed and reconstructed.
 Research interacts with participant which provides more understanding of the
phenomenon.
 Suitable in developing of new theories.
 It is good as at simplifies managing of data without destroying complexity of content.
Disadvantages
 Can only be suitable in small scale studies
 Ambiguities inherent in human language can be recognized in the analysis.
 Policy makers have no regard for qualitative data due to lack of figures for comparison
 Data analysis is difficult and complex
 Qualitative research is subjective which limits authenticity of the findings.
iii) Methods /procedures /Research design
Descriptive survey research
It involves description of currents status of events or characteristics in a population or
phenomena without controlling the variables
Characteristic of descriptive survey
1. Ascertain prevailing conditions or facts as they are
2. What causes the prevailing conditions is not emphasized
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 3. Comparison of characteristics of two or more groups / cases can be made
4. Descriptive studies are generally cross sectional (studies done at the same time)
5. Description research can be replicated for verification of the prevailing conditions.
6. Study of conditions at different periods can be made
7. Findings can be generalized to other situations
8. Can be applied in both qualitative and quantitative studies
9. Questionnaires and interview guides can be used in data collection
10. Study sample can be representative or census
Advantage of descriptive study research
 Findings can be generalized to other situations.
 Can be used to examine relationships among the variables.
 Can be used to collect data from a large population.
 It is easy carry out statistical analysis.
 Used in making various comparisons
 Can be used in both qualitative and quantitative studies.
 Can be used to test theories/models.
Disadvantages
 Data is based on opinions which may not necessary reflect the situation on the ground.
 Data produced may lack the necessary depth of the phenomena under investigation.
 Difficult to determine causal effect relationship
 Difficult to control variables which can interfere with the findings.
 Surveys are often associated with poor response rates
Importance of description survey research in education
 describes the opinions of stakeholders in regard to education
 provide understanding of the current issues in education
 provides comparison of education performance in education institutions
 provides scientific based identification of educational problems
 Provides the basis of education reform
 Helps to predict trends in education

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY RESEARCH

It is a research approach which involves attempts to discover effects of presumed
causes/cause effect relationship
Characteristics of experimental study research
1. Random assignment; this involves assessing individuals at random to groups in an
experiment
2. Control of variables; this involves removing the variables that may confuse
relationship among variable under study
3. Manipulation of variables;This involves deciding the independent variable to be
manipulated and which group is to receive the treatment for example use different
fertilizers at various portions of land
4. Measurement of outcomes; Involves taking readings on the effects of independent
variable on the independent variable.
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 5. Comparison of outcomes. Involves comparing the outcomes after various treatment in
the particular groups
Advantages of experimental of research
1. Control over irrelevant variables is higher which leads to better results
2. Manipulation of variables helps to establish cause effect relationships
3. Allows repeated trials to verify findings and conclusions
4. Provides opportunity to obtain the most effective combination of variables to attain
expected outcome
5. Convenient of for carrying out statistical relationship
Disadvantages
1. At times cannot be done because independent variables may not be manipulated due to
ethical and practical reasons.
2. Control of extraneous variables creates artificial or a condition not practical in real life
situation.
3. It is subject to human error while somehow affects the efficiency of results
4. Samples may not be reliable to give the expected outcomes
5. It is expensive and time consuming.
6. In real world application is limited
CASE STUDY RESEARCH
Refers to a holistic analysis of a phenomenon within its real life context .the phenomenon may
include persons, events , decisions, projects ,policies ,institution or other system that are studied
holistically.
Characteristics of case studies
 Can involve single or multiple case studies
 Rely on multiple sources of evidence
 Can use both qualitative and qualitative methods
 Involves in-depth analysis of the subject under investigation.
 Benefits from prior development of theoretical preposition to guide data collection and
analysis.
Advantages
 Allows exploration and understanding of complex issues.
 Considered a robust method when holistic in-depth information is required.
 Examination of data is often conducted within the contexts of its use.
 Explains complexities of real life situations that cannot be captured through survey &
experiment al studies.
 Forms a practical solution when a big sample population is difficult to obtain
Disadvantages
 Assorted with biased views within influence direction & conclusion of findings.
 It is difficult to conduct due to massive documentation.
 Dependence on single case exploration limits generalization
 Lacks ground for establishing reliability & generality.
 Dismissed as only useful as an exploration tool.

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HISTORICAL RESEARCH
It is a systematic process of searching for information & facts to describe analyses an interphase
the past.
Characteristics
 Involves digging into significant data that tells us about past events
 Conducted based on analysis of all known information regarding the problem.
 Attaches meaning to events that have already occurred.
 Involves collection of both primary and secondary data
 Explains causal relationship with the existing data.
 Aims at developing knowledge of past events within a particular time.
 Involves evaluation of data through historical organization to verify validity & reliability

Advantages
1. Provides a very rich source of information
2. Makes use of different kind of evidence.
3. Current education practices theories can be understood in the light of past events.
4. Can be used to forecast the future trends of events
5. Can guide other types of research such as experimental studies in geology.
Disadvantages
1. Reliability & validity may not be ascertained.
2. Heavily relies on secondary data hence it does not provide real time experience
3. Secondary data may be biased which affects authenticity of the finding.
4. Depends on skills & ability of the researcher
5. Representative of the sample cannot be ensured.
6. There researchers cannot manipulate the variables
7. It is normally difficult to analyze the massive data.
ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH
-it is the study of social interaction behavior and perceptions that occur within groups, teams,
organizations and communities.
Characteristics
 Subjects are studied in a natural setting.
 Research demands close face to face interaction with the researcher & participant.
 Produces accurate reflection of perspectives and behavior of the study group.
 Data is collected from field work experience.
 Culture is used as the lens to interpret results.
 Emphasizes on exploration of nature of a particular social phenomena.
 Investigates small amounts of cases usually one cut but in details.
 Uses multiple method of data collection like interviews, observation and review of
artificial & visual materials.
 Researchers frame all humans & historical context.
 Often interprets peoples action & behaviors
Advantages
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  Suitable for discovering the needs and problems of a single community.
 Gives much detailed picture of particular attitude behavior in relation to objectives of the
study.
 Provide empirical insight into hidden sources principle is gashed.
 The research is holistic as it allows discovering of many different faces of the
community.
 It is good for studies when the topic is complex and embedded in a social system.
 Can be used to study something that occurs over a long period of time for example
education system.
 It is suitable in assessing impact of a new product or service.
Disadvantages
 Difficult to analyses massive data
 Places high demand for research in terms of time
 Costly understanding as studies are done over along period of time
 Findings cannot be generalized to other situations
 Presence of a researcher could alter attitude of the group.
 Certain societies are difficult to gain access without the assistant of someone inside the
group.
 Research is quite subjective as it relies on findings and conclusions of the researcher.
EVALUATION RESEARCH
It is the type of applied research that attempts to examine effectiveness of a social program
Purpose of research
 To account for the use of limited resource.
 to describe the impact of the program
 to increase efficiency in the implementation of a program
 To address concern for the public towards a certain program
 It strengthens political position towards a certain program.
 To identify errors in the implementation of a program
 To make decisions on continuation or termination of a program.
Characteristics
 Applies research findings to specific areas
 Aims to refocus issue under investigation
 Employs conventional research designs and procedures
 Systematic in collection of information employing both qualitative and quantitative
designs
 Has goal oriented process
 Aims to determine whether intended results were realized
Advantages
1. Research can review whether policy working.
2. Explains the underlying logic behind program
3. Increases efficiency in the program.
4. Corrects errors in the implementation process

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 5. Helps to make decisions on contribution.
Disadvantages
 Difficult to generalize to other situations
 Require higher research skills
 It is a costly exercise
 May be biased
 May bring conflicts of interest
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
This is the type of research that focuses on relationship among naturally occurring variables
Characteristics
 Data consists of entirely observation and measurement
 Two or more variables are collected from each individual in the sample.
 Data is collected at a single point in time.
 Data is analyzed as a single group.
 Aims at examining relationships
 Requires a measure on each variable for each subject.
 Data is analyzed using correlation coefficient & scatter plots.
Advantages
 Can collect much information from many subjects at a time
 Can study a wide range of variables and information.
 Can be used to study variables that cannot be easily examined in the laboratory e.g.
discipline & performance
 Explains relationships among variables.
Disadvantages
1. Does not indicate causation/cause effect relationship
2. Problem of self-reporting can be biased.
3. There is no direct manipulation of the variables
4. Difficult to interpret findings
CAUSAL COMPARATIVE RESEARCH
It is also called expost- facto relationship
This is the type of research that attempts to identify causes or consequences of differences that
already exist among groups of individuals.
Characteristics of casual comparative research
1. Explores causation/ cost effect relationship
2. There is no manipulation of variables
3. Require at least one categorical variable whose numbering has no meaning e.g. male
/female
4. Compares two or more groups
5. Compare causes or consequences that already exist
6. Data analysis is by comparison or averages
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Advantages
1. Explains cause effect relationship.
2. Help to identify variables worth of experimental research
3. It is more cost effective than experimental
4. Allows for ethical consideration as no manipulation of variables.
5. Allows studying cause effect relationship where experiments can’t be done.
Disadvantages
1. There is no control of extraneous variables which can affect the findings.
2. Inability to manipulate variable reduces authenticity of cause effect relationship.
3. Lack of randomization in sampling of groups compromises findings
4. There is danger of inappropriate interpretation of relationships
Importance of research in education
1. To improve practice: research findings provide basis for adoption of practice to improve
quality of teaching & learning.
2. Add to the existing knowledge: research can add to what we already know in
facilitation learning process.
3. Research provides scientific based understanding of education issues and their solutions.
4. Higher certification; Research is a mandatory for qualification for masters and PhD
5. Education research form the basis of change in curriculum and education reforms
6. Sealing gaps in existing knowledge; Education research helps to examine areas where
title is known aimed at developing new theories.
7. Source of monetary gains: Research consultancy in education research for government,
NGO’s and individual’s is a source of monetary gains
Ethical issues and considerations in research
Meaning of ethics in research
Refers to norms or standards that guide relationship between the researcher, participants and
sponsors
Importance of ethics in research
 Protect the right of vulnerable
 Maintains privacy and confidentiality in research.
 Ascertain authenticity and quality of research
 Appropriation of funds for research
 Ensure knowledge gained is shared and disseminated.
 To comply with relevant laws and regulations of the land concerning research
 To maintain the integrity of the researcher
Consideration of ethical issues
1 Plagiarism;
Refers to presentation of someone’s ideas or words as your own
Consideration/control
i. Citing the author in the text

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 ii. Citing the author in the reference list
iii. Crediting the author for direct quotation
2) Fraud /forgery; Misrepresentation of data collected
Consideration/control
i. Replicating of studies
ii. Peer reviewing
iii. Being objective in data collection, analysis and interpretation
3) Right of privacy and confidentiality
Research may comprise privacy and confidentiality of respondents
Control / consideration
a. Inform participant on their rights e.g. the right to participate
b. Obtain permission to collect data from the relevant authority such as
National Commission of Sciences Technology and Innovation
c. Restrict observation to public behavior
d. Limit the required time for observation.
e. Obtain informed consent from respondents or guardians
f. Restrict access to data where participants are identified.
4) Anonymity:
Respondents may fear to be exposed
Control/ consideration
i. Names are not revealed in the data collection instruments
ii. Pseudo-names (false names) are used in report writing
5) Right to disseminate knowledge
iii. It is unethical to conceal research findings
Control/Consideration
i. Publishing of work in journals and textbooks
ii. Sharing of data results
iii. Opening of the work for critique
iv. Presentation of findings in conferences
6) Uses of the vulnerable to collect data

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 It is unethical to take advantage of the vulnerable like children, old people or those with
special needs to gather data
Consideration/ Control
i. Consent should be obtained from parents /guardian
7) Legality
–it is unethical to carry out research without complying with rules & regulations governing the
use of animal and humans for research.
Consideration/ Control
i. Obtain research authority from the relevant organizations such as National Commission
of science , Technology and Innovation (NACOSTI)
8) Integrity of researcher:
The researcher is expected to adhere to moral rules and values when conducting research
Consideration/ Control
i. Being objective in data collection analysis and interpretation
ii. Using research funds for the intended purpose
iii. Keeping promises and agreements with participant’s respondent and sponsors
9) Informed consent:
Refers to a person knowingly, voluntarily or intelligently gives consent to take part in research
Control/consideration
i. Participants should be informed of purpose, benefits, risk and their rights to participate
as well as withdraw from research with no conditions
RESEARCH PROCESS
The research process has six main stages;
1. Identifying the research problem
2. Review of related literature
3. Research design & sampling methods
4. Collection of data
5. Data analysis & interpretation
6. Report writing & dissemination of findings
Identification of research problem
 Research process starts with formulating research problem which can be investigated
through research procedures
 Research problem is specifically called statement of the problem A research problem is a
specific issue or a gap in knowledge the researcher has identified in literature, theory or
practice that need to be addressed, solutions found and knowledge gap filled
A) Sources of a research problem
1) Existing theories
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 Existing theories such as systems theory, Herzberg 2 factor theory, contain generalization and
hypothesized principles which can be scientifically tested leading to validation, revision or
discarding of the theory
2) Existing literature
Available literature in Text books and articles reveal problem or gaps in knowledge that can be
addressed through research
3) Discussion with experts
Discussion on general topics in seminars and workshops help to identify current problems that
can be researched on
4) Previous research studies – Research studies recommends areas for further research which
provides the researcher with researchable projects that can add knowledge built up by other
researchers
5) Personal experiences:
Personal experiences as a student, teacher or education administrator may expose a researcher to
areas of concern that can be investigated through research e.g. cheating in exams, poor
performance and teenage pregnancies
6) Media- Frequent reports on certain phenomenon in social, print and mass media may inform
the researcher on need to examine the phenomena of concern, for example frequent reports on
domestic violence and series of murders justifies research to understand and solve these
problems
7) Technological changes
Advancement in technologies elicit new knowledge, opportunities and challenges that can be
understood through research
8) Political influence
Political interests may lead to formation of research commission to address a certain
phenomenon or push a political ideology for example in the formation education commissions to
address education issues
9) Social changes
Social dynamics and emerging issues such as teenage motherhood, single motherhood and
divorce provide ground for research to understand their implication
10) Global conventions: Global conventions such Education for All (2000) Sustainable
Development Goals (UN, 2015) summit identify and recommend areas of concern for example
gender disparity in education or quality of education that can be researched on.
B) Qualities/characteristics of a good research problem
1. Should address a gap in knowledge
2. Has multiple solutions that can be addressed through research
3. Should be grounded in certain theoretical framework
4. Has potential significance upon providing research based solution
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 5. Should be res
6. Researchable based on existing methodologies and data available
7. Should be doable within limits of time and budgets\
8. Should have a base in literature
9. Should generate research questions
10. The problem can be stated clearly and concisely
11. The problem should generate a number of more specific research questions

C) Variables of a research problem

Variable: Refers to a measurable characteristic, attributes or phenomena that can assume several
values or can vary. In sciences variables include height, weight, temperature, pressure, volume
in sciences which vary depending on circumstances. In social sciences, variables include stress,
leadership style, age, gender, experience, education level, performance, discipline, motivation
which also vary for example depending on individual, institution or circumstances. In research,
variables involves unpack the research problem in a way that identifies a general cause and
effect in which the variables are classified into independent and dependent variables.
Independent variable: Refers to a variable assumed to have an effect on another variable
Dependent variable: Refers to a variable which reflects effect of the influence from another
variable
Examples in science research
 A scientist studies the impact of a drug on cancer. The independent variables are the
administration of the drug -the dosage and the timing. The dependent variable is the
impact the drug has on cancer
 .A scientist studies the impact of withholding affection on rats. The independent
variable is the amount of affection. The dependent variable is the reaction of the rats
 A scientist studies how many days’ people can eat soup until they get sick. The
independent variable is the number of days of consuming the soup. The dependent
variables are the onset of illness.
Examples in social science research
 Influence of leadership styles on student performance in KCSE .The independent
variable is leadership style while the dependent variable is performance in KCSE
 Exposure to mass media and student discipline in schools. The independent variable is
exposure
 to mass media while dependent variable is student discipline
 Relationship between motivation and intention of teachers to quit. The independent
variable is motivation and dependent variable intention to quite
Extraneous variables
Extraneous variables are intentionally assumed variables but can affect the relationship
between independent and dependent variables

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Extraneous variables are unwanted factors in a study that, if not accounted for, could negatively
affect (i.e. confound ) the data subsequently collected.
Examples of extraneous variables
The impact of learning teaching style (lectures/seminars) on examination performance

Intentional variables
Independent variable: learning teaching style (either lectures or seminars)
Dependent variable: examination performance (statistics exam ranging from 0-100 marks)
Extraneous variables
Independent variable: quality of lecturers or seminars
Dependent variable: student tiredness
The above two variables can affect the relationship between teaching style and examination
performance but may be put into consideration
D) Study Objectives
A research objective is a declarative statement which provides direction to investigate the
variables under the study. Once the problem has been identified and variables singled out
objectives are formulated
i) Stating of objectives
 Objectives are stated in behavioral terms using active verbs
 Variables to be stated are identified
 They should be presented in logical sequence
 They should be phrased in operational terms
ii) Importance of research objectives
 Objectives give direction to the paper as the scope is defined
 Objectives help to avoid any diversion from the topic
 Research objectives minimize wastage of resources as the researcher will stick to what is
intended to be achieved
 Objectives ease the understanding of the research by the target audience
 Guides data collection and analysis

ii) Qualities/ characteristic of research objective (SMART)

i. Specific: An objective should be clear and concise on what is to be achieved
ii. Measurable: Should have qualitative or quantitative aspect to assess the final result
iii. Achievable: The objective should be feasible or met within limits of time and resources
iv. Relevant: The objective should adequately address the scope of the problem
v. Time bound: The objectives should be achievable within limits of time available or
schedules
Objectives are derived from the independent variables

18
For example in the following study topic the objectives would be:
Effect of leadership styles on teacher motivation in public secondary schools in Nyeri County
Leadership style is the independent variable while motivation is the dependent variable
The objectives are derived from the independent variable;
The objectives will be
i. To examine the effect transformational leadership style and motivation of teachers in
public secondary schools in Nyeri County
ii. To determine the effect of transactional leadership style and motivation of teachers in
public secondary schools in Nyeri County
iii. To examine the effect of democratic leadership style and turnover intention of teachers
in public secondary schools in Nyeri County
iv. To examine the effect of autocratic leadership style motivation of teachers in public
secondary schools in Nyeri County
Note: (i)
Objectives should use non biased active verbs; to find out, to establish, to examine, to explore, to
determine and to investigate, to relate, to identify
Biased active verbs such to show, demonstrate, illustrate, prove; indicate; demonstrate, validate
should be avoided
e) Research questions
Research questions refer to objectives stated in question form indicating what and how the
objectives will be achieved for example
i. What is the effect transformational leadership style and motivation of teachers in public
secondary schools in Nyeri County?
ii. What is the effect of transactional leadership style and motivation of teachers in public
secondary schools in Nyeri County?
iii. What is the effect of democratic leadership style and turnover intention of teachers in
public secondary schools in Nyeri County?
iv. What is the effect of autocratic leadership style motivation of teachers in public
secondary schools in Nyeri County?
Hypothesis: They are declarative statements proposing relationship among two or more
variables. Hypothesis are stated with respect to the study objectives
Characteristics
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 i. They are propositions or declarative statements made indicating relationship between two or
more variables
ii. They are possible causes/reasons for the problem or assumptions or guesses drawn from
reading or from experience about the problem
iii. They are predictive statements providing guiding principles to the case of the whole research
iv. They are statements with clear testing and verification that can be measured empirically or
quantitatively
v. They are stated in negative or positive direction
Type of hypothesis
i) Null hypothesis: This is a statistical hypothesis that the researcher seeks to reject and
predicts lack of relationship among variables . This presumes a status quo, no significant
change. It also predicts there is no difference between groups being studied Example:
ii) There is no significant relationship between democratic leadership style and teacher
motivation
ii) The exercise group and the no-exercise group will not differ significantly on levels of
cholesterol
Alternative hypothesis: It is the hypothesis that the researcher seeks to support predicts a
relationship among variables
i. There is a relationship between democratic leadership style and teacher motivation
ii. The exercise group and the no-exercise group will differ significantly on levels of
cholesterol
ii) Review of related literature
Literature refers what has been documented by others concerning the phenomena of interest to
the researcher
Importance of literature review
i. Literature review reveals the extent to which the phenomenal of concern have been
addressed by other researchers
ii. It reveals what strategies, procedures & measuring instruments useful in investigating the
problem in question.
iii. It suggests other approaches that the researcher can use or improve the study
iv. It reveals gaps providing rationale for the study
v. It facilitates interpretation of findings as results can be discussed in terms of whether they
support or contrast the previous findings
vi. It reveals futile approaches alerting the researcher not to use them.
vii. Its suggestion & recommendations for further research & forms sources of the research
problem
Sources of literature review
1. Scholarly journals: are found in libraries & internet forming important source of literature
20
2. Thesis and dissertations: Master’s degree & PHD graduate undertake original work written
up as thesis & dissertation for fulfillment of their academic awards .they are found in libraries
and internet
3. Government documents - Policy papers, research report such as education commission
reports, acts of parliament and legal notices
4. Presentation at conferences; Paper presented at conferences is reliable source of information.
5. Textbooks :Published books in various discipline are critical sources of literature review
6. Reference quoted in books, journals, thesis & dissertation: reference given at the back of
relevant books journals thesis & desolations may reveal more relevant sources of information.
7 Abstract –it is a summary of the statement of a problem objective, research methodology &
findings this summary can be a source of information.
8 Print media- such as newspaper or periodicals form with source of information.
Component of literature review
1. Empirical literature involves reviewing literature from related studies that have been
done.
2. Subheadings of empirical literature are based on study objectives
3. Theoretical literature: involves reviewing of theories related to the topic of the study.
4. Critique of the literature: involves highlighting the strength & weakness of literature
review.
5. Research gaps: it involves highlighting the weakness of the literature available which
your study intends to add
Research design and sampling method
 Research design is a strategy or plans of action to carry out research
 Research design is similar to the type of research according to the classification
according to methods and procedures
 Therefore, the type of research under methods and procedures and their definition
characteristics, advantages & disadvantages are the same with the research design
Therefore research designs includes;
 Descriptive survey research design.
 Case study design “
 Ethnographic research design “
 Causal comparative
 Experimental research
 Evaluation research design
 Historical research design
 Correlational research design
Choice of research design
Choice of research design is determined by;
 objectives of the study
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  variables of the study
 data analysis techniques
 time available to carry out research
 Financial resources available
 The skills of the researcher
Importance of research design
1. Helps to estimate the cost of the research
2. Helps to estimate the time to be taken for the research
3. Determines data analysis technique
4. Determines sampling methods
5. Determines data collection methods
Sampling methods/ Techniques and sample size
Sampling methods; The strategies used to select representative elements, individuals or
respondents from the target population
Target population- the total number of subject, items or individuals of interest to the researcher
e.g. all students at K.T.T.C sample – part of the target population that has been procedurally
selected to represent it.
Sampling- Process of selecting representative individuals, items or respondents that will take
part in the study
Techniques of data collection are composed of probability and non-probability sampling
techniques
Importance of sampling
1. Provides accurate information about a group that are too large to study in their totality.
2. Allows generalization to a large population.
3. Enables statistical analysis
4. Avoid bias as each member has a chance of being selected.
5. Its economical to work with small population in reference to time taken
6. Its financially economical
7) To obtain sample with the required population
Reducing bias in research
 Random selection of respondents
 Validation of respondents
 Choice of appropriate research design
 Replication of trials where possible
 Peer review to obtain feedback
22
  Triangulation in data collection methods and analysis/use of multiple data collection
methods and analysis
 Use of stratified sampling method in a heterogeneous population
 Use of both qualitative and quantitative methods in data collection and analysis
 Use of appropriate sample sizes

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Refers to description of strategies which the research will use to select representative elements
subject or respondent from target population
i. Non probability sampling
ii. Probability sampling.
NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING
It refers to selecting a sample of population without the interest of the total population
Mostly used in qualitative research: sampling has the focus in in-depth information and not
making inferences or generalization
Non probability sampling techniques include
i. Purposive sampling
ii. Quota sampling
iii. Convenience sampling
iv. Snowball sampling
Purposive sampling
it is handpicking of subject that have the required information or they possess the required
characteristics [Link] can also be done when the population is too small to be sampled e.g. in
school if a research is carrying out an effect of student discipline on academic performance the
head teacher on the virtue of holding an administrative position may be purposively sampled as
they may have critical information on discipline
Quota sampling
It is identifying sub groups with similar characteristics in the population & from each group a
sample is taken but not at random.
Convenient sampling
It is selecting those who happen to be available on come first serve basis the data is collected at
the spur of the moment. It is commonly used in a pilot or exploratory study
Snowball sampling

23
Refers to social networks to locate individuals or respondents who are difficult to trace in order
obtain appropriate data. This is based on the fact that peers tend to have contact of each other
thus possible to use friends to locate others. Used commonly in historical research
PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS
Refers to the method of sampling in which certain objects/individuals are chosen to represent a
known total population
1. Simple random sampling
2. Systematic sampling
3. Stratified sampling
4. Cluster sampling
Simple random sampling: This involves selecting representatives at random from a population
which every person or subjects is given equal chance of being chosen. This is by giving a
number to every subject or member of the accessible population placing the number in a
container then picking any at random. Statistical books also contain random numbers that are
used to pick the sample
Systematic sampling: It is selecting every nth number of the population at intervals from a
randomized list of the population after determining the samples size. It involves dividing total
people by the sample size e.g. if the population is 200 & sample is 40 then 200/40=5 therefor
every 5th member of the population will take part in the study.
Stratified sampling
This involves dividing the population into homogenous groups from which the representative
sample is proportionately selected from the subset at random. Provides the opportunity to every
member in a heterogeneous population to be selected as part of the sample.
Cluster sampling
It is dividing the population into clusters when the population is very large or scattered over large
geographical area and then the cluster is selected at random.
Determining of sample size
The sample size determination will depend on
1. Research design
2. Type of research
3. Size of the target population
4. Resources available
5. Sampling methods
6. Time available
Recommendation of various scholar can be used to history sample size eg Mugenda and
Mugenda (2003) recommend a minimum of 10% for a descriptive survey
Orodho (2009) recommends a minimum sample of 20% of the total population for a descriptive
survey.
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Gray & Eurasian (2003) recommend minimum sample of 10-40 % of the total population for
a survey.
Cohen Marion & Morrison (2007) recommend a minimum sample of 30 subjects to attain full
range of opinions in a qualitative study and to enable to work out statistical analysis in a
quantitative study
Pals and Kathuri (1993) & Krecjie & Morgan (1970) provide a formula from which they
derive a table indicating population and sample
DATA COLLECTION
It is the 4th stage in the research process
Data is the set of values of qualitative and quantitative variables. It is the end result of a
research producedures
Types of data
1. Primary data; refers to original information collected by the researcher
2. Secondary data : Recorded that had been collected earlier e.g. published information in
books, journals or government reports
Instrumentation
Refers to the tools to be used for collecting data and how the tools will be developed in
educational research
The tools include: Non-participant and participant observation, documents analysis,
structured interviews, focus group discussions, questionnaires
Describing instrumentation the researcher must;
 describe the instrument to be used
 describe the nature of the instruments; meaning and purpose
 Provide justification for using the instrument.
Observation
It is use of senses to perceive and understand experiences of the interest to the researcher
Types of observation
 non participant observation
 participant observation
i)Non-participant observations
Data collection by use of senses to perceive and understand experiences without the researcher
getting involved in the activities of the group
This may involve use of structured format like observation check list in which things that one
intended to be observed are recorded or unstructured
Advantages of non-participant observation
 Not actively participating in a situation helps the researcher to observe with a
neutral understanding
 Non-participant observation enables the researchers to be more careful in their
observation resulting in more accuracy of research findings
 Non-participant observation is likely to save the researcher from any potential
danger situations as well as from falling a victim to unnecessary groupism
 Quick to carry out as formation can be collected easily

25
  Can be used to collect both qualitative and quantitative data
 It is good for making comparisons which enhances reliability
Disadvantages
 Lack of interaction with the respondents prevents the researcher from getting a subjective
and empathetic understanding of a social situation
 There is likelihood Hawthorne effect due to the formal nature of researchers presence
(change in behavior as a result of a stimulus)
 Lack of validity because the researcher are not asked why people are acting in a certain
way
 Compromises ethical concerns as the behavior of the group is exposed.
 Tendency to collect shallow information as observation takes place at surface level
ii)Participant observation
This data collection method involves a researcher joining group and looking at members
activities as data is collected
 Allows the researcher to collect both qualitative and quantitative data
 Allows the researcher to get personal experiences of the group
 The researcher obtains firsthand information likely to be valid
 Allows access to more suspicious group due to rapport and trust gained
 Permit flexibility which leads to gaining deeper information.

Disadvantages
 Raises ethical issues due to penetration of group activities
 It is time consuming as it requires long time to gain experiences relevant to the research
 Involves smaller sample sizes therefore it is difficult to generalize findings
 Risk of getting too much involved in groups activities lead to collection of biased data
 Requires very high level of research skills
iii)Documents analysis
Is the analysis of content from written documents in order to make certain deductions on study
objectives
Advantages
 Saves effects and expenses and involves perusing of documents
 Helps understanding of background information better
 Eliminates the effect of the researcher on the situation of study
 Documents are useful in tracking changes even over a long time i.e. longitudinal
research.
 Provides very detailed information concerning the study phenomenon
 Complement data collected from the primary data sources
Disadvantages
 Requires very high investigative skills
 Some documents only provides a piece of useful data
 There is potential of bias by the author
26
  Data may be incomplete or inconsistent
iv)Interview
The verbal conversation between two parties aimed at collecting information relevant to the
research purpose
Advantages of interview
 Provide in-depth data which is not possible when using questionnaire
 It is flexible than questionnaire because the interview may verify questions
 Guard against confusing questions since the interview can clarify a questionnaire
 Sensitive and personal information can be extracted from the respondents by honest right
person between the respondents the interviewer
 More information can be obtained from probing questions
 Rapport developed can help to obtain the positive side
 Interview obtain higher response rates compared to questionnaires
Disadvantages
 It is expensive in terms of travelling
 Can be misused to get factual information.
 It requires high level of skills
 Flexibility introduces bias
 Subjectively to the study
 Involves smaller sample which limits generalization
 Respondent reaction to the interviewer may affect the responses
 Confidentiality is compromised as the respondent is well known by the researcher
Telephone interview
Refers to conversation between parties aimed at collecting data for research purpose using
telecommunication technology.
Advantages
 Data can be collected from a wide area
 Information is gathered rapidly
 It’s cost effective as does not involve travelling
 Ensures anonymity at ascertain level
 Takes less effort to establish compared to a personal interviewer
Disadvantages
 Relies on availability of telephones
 People often dislike the phone according to their situations
 Conversation is limited as respondents may not entertain long telephone interviews
 Information collected may be shallow due to limited time
 Probing is limited therefore validity is reduced
 It is hard to acquire the attention of the respondent

v) Focus group discussion

27
A focus group discussion involves gathering people from similar backgrounds or experiences
together to discuss a specific topic of interest
What to consider ensuring successful focus group discussion
 Clarity of objectives
 Recruit the right respondents with requisite information
 Ensure a conducive atmosphere for discussion to solicit required information
 Keep control of the session to avoid deviating from the topic
 Avoid leading questions to obtain objective opinions
 Ensure homogeneity as the key to maximizing disclosure among focus group participants
Advantages of FGDs
 Clarify and test pre-conceived notions and findings.
 It is not based on a natural atmosphere
 Confirm insights obtained from other methodologies
 Allow generation of hypothesis
 Data is fast and easily collected
 It has low cost in relation to other methods
Disadvantages
 The researcher has less control over the data that are generated
 Requires very high expertise to conduct
 The data analysis is more difficult to be done
 Takes effort to gather a suitable group
 Moderators can impact the outcome of a focus group discussion because of the bias they
bring into the room
 It is not based on a natural atmosphere
vi) Questionnaires
Refers to collection of items to which a respondent is expected to react usually in writing
Advantages
 A lot of information is collected over a short period of time
 It is suitable for larger population
 Objective responses are easily obtained due to its confidential nature
 Data from questionnaires can easily be analyzed
 Data from questionnaires can be generalized to a larger population
Disadvantages
 Confuses respondents as the nature of information require
 May discourage responses to the extent of questionnaire
 May leave out information required in the study
 Limited to literate respondents
Types of Questionnaires
1. Structured – Close ended questionnaires
2. Unstructured – Open ended questionnaires
Structured / Close ended Questionnaires
28
These are questions that are accompanied by a list of all possible alternatives from each
respondent
Select the answer e.g.
What type of a house do you live in?
a) Bungalow
b) Maissonette
c) Hut
d) other
Advantages
i) Easier to analyze
ii) Faster to administer
iii) Economical in terms of time
iv) Economical in terms of money used.
Disadvantages
1. More difficult to construct
2. Responses are limited
3. Respondent is compelled to answer questions according to researcher’s choices.
Unstructured –Open ended questionnaire
a) Refers to questions which give respondents complete freedom of responses
Advantages Permit greater depth of response
1. Easier to formulation
2. Respondents give insight to their inner feelings
3. The respondent is able to express what they consider as most important.
Disadvantages
i. Respondent is likely to provide irrelevant information
ii. Responses will be difficult to categorize for analysis
iii. Time consuming
Rules of constructing questionnaires
i) Items should tally with objectives
ii) Clarity is essential in which terms like several and most should be avoided
iii) Short questions are preferred
iv) Statements should be as positive as possible
v) Avoiding leading or biased questions
vi) Use simple words that are easily understandable
vii) Avoid psychological threatening questions
viii) Avoid personal and sensitive questions
ix) Avoid questions that assume facts with no evidence e.g. have you stopped browsing?

Quality control
Refers to ascertaining reliability and validity of research instruments
29
The researcher should describe precisely all the techniques that will be used to control or reduce
the effects of extraneous variables.
In such reliability and validity is maximized through:-
 Pilot study
 Reliability
 Validity
a)Pilot Study
Refers to a mini version of the full scale study
Is normally taken using 1-10% sample
Pilot study is important in;
 Improving the language used
 Removing ambiguous questions
 Estimation of cost and time
 To carry out other reliability measures
( b)Reliability
Ability of an instrument to produce consistent results after repeated trials. It is caused by non-
random error
Random error is deviation from two measurements due factors that have not been effectively
addressed by the researcher
Errors may arise from inaccurate coding, ambiguous instructions interviewers’ bias or fatigue.
Measures of reliability: It is measured through pilot study, test-retest, split half technique and
internal consistency test.
i)Test Retest
It is administering the same instrument twice to the group of respondents within a specific period
of [Link] scores of the first test are recorded with the scores of the second test.
A correlation coefficient is calculated and if its 0.7% above the instrument is said to be reliable.
The disadvantage of this method is that:-
i) Respondents may be sensitized after the first test
ii) It is hard to determine the suitable testing period
ii)Split-half Technique
It involves dividing the items into two equal parts and correlating scores of the first part with the
scores of the second part. Correlation coefficient is calculated and if it is 0.7 and above, the
instrument is said to be reliable.
ii)Internal Consistency Test
It involves correlating scores of one item with the score of other items in the instrument.
A correlation coefficient called Cronbach’s Alpha is calculated and if it is above 0.7 the
instrument is said to be reliable.
c)Validity
Refers to the ability of an instrument to measure what it is supposed to measure or the degree to
which the instrument is accurate in measuring what it is supposed to measure
It is caused by random error e.g.

30
A fault scale for weighing balance will over estimate or underestimate the weight by the same
margin after several trials. Therefore, research instruments must measure what they are supposed
to measure.
Validation of instrument is done through:-
i) Expert judgment and peer review
ii) Setting questions according to objectives
iii) Statistical factor analysis
Validity is caused by non-random error; for example if a weighing machine is faulty, it will over
or underestimates weight with the same margin all measures

Data analysis, interpretation and presentation

This is the fifth stage of the research process
Data analysis involves organizing data to a meaningful form
Data can be analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively
Qualitative data analysis;
- Organizing data collected into themes for comparisons
- Reporting responses verbally
Quantitative data involves giving meaning to the data collected in numbers which may involve
use of descriptive and inferential statistics
Descriptive statistics illustrate the status of the variables under study. This can be done using
measures central tendency
Inferential statistics are used to examine the relationship among the variables e.g. use of
Pearson correlation, Chi-square test, Regression, t-test and Analysis of variance
Data Presentation
Involves putting the data in an understandable form of tables or figures
Data interpretation
Involves making meaning of the data that has been presented in relation to the existing situation
or other studies that have been done or whether the data analyzed concurs or contrasts with the
existing literature
Report writing and dissemination of findings; involves compiling the research findings,
indicating the summary of findings, making conclusions and recommendations.

Qualities of a good research report

Clarity: Making the findings available to the interested parties;
Precision: Report should avoid generalization
Completeness: No part of the study should be left out the report
Objectivity: Subjectivity and emotionality should be avoided in the report
Impersonality: Report should be written in the third person
Verifiability: Information presented in the report should have support evidence
Appropriacy:The report should be comprehensive to all intended readers
Ethics: Report must comply with the code of research ethics
Pagination: should be well done for easy reference
Dissemination of research findings
Refers to sharing of research findings with stakeholders and wider audiences
 Publication of research findings in the textbooks

31
  Presentation of research findings in conferences
 Publication of research findings in scholarly journals
 Distribution of research reports in physical libraries/ digital libraries
 Uploading of research reports in institutional websites
 Sharing research reports in the mass and print media
 Sharing research reports in seminars and workshops

Challenges in Research
a) Cultural barriers: in some communities, some information or topics are not discussed in
public such as sexuality and death. It becomes difficult to collect such data.
b) Language – If the language of the respondent is different from that of the researcher it
inhibits effective communication to collect reliable data
c) Cost of research – Research is an expensive undertaking therefore, without enough
funds it is hard to conduct quality and timely research
d) Misappropriation of research funds – Using research funds for unbudgeted means
inhibits effective research
e) Time – Research is time consuming therefore, it becomes difficult to carryout research
with limited time.
f) Lack of adequate skills and knowledge Effective research requires adequately high
level of skills in data collection and analysis.

Sources of Research Funds

i) Research institutions such as International Center of Insect Physiology and
Ecology (ICIPE) and Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization
(KALRO)
ii) Government funding through bodies such as National Research Fund (NRF)
iii) Personal finances
iv) Sponsorship by parents
v) International organizations such as UNEP, UNESCO
COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
1).Preliminaries
Are paginated in roman numbers
They include:-
i). Cover page –
Components and importance of cover page
a)The title; Indicates the topic of the study
should have:-It should not be more than 20 words e.g.
Effects on leadership style in students’ performance in KCSE in Public Secondary Schools in
Nyeri County.
Independent variable is leadership styles
Dependent – Students performance / achievement
Population – 20 Schools
Location – Nyeri County
i. The independent variable
ii. The dependent variable

32
 iii. Study population
iv. Location of the study
b)Author name: Indicates the name of the researcher
c) Affiliation: Shows the institute in which the research is affiliated for example a university
d)Award: Indicate the award to be given following the completion of research such as Masters
or Phd
e)Date; indicate when the research proposal was written
ii). Declaration
This is a commitment of the originality of the work and acknowledgement of receiving the
document by the students and supervisors respectively.
iii) Dedication
It is a statement indicating the person who is to be honored in the research study.
iv)) Acknowledgement
Involve recognizing people/institutions that have assisted the researcher in the course of the
study. They may be like sponsors of the study, parents, spouse and children and study cohort.
Dedication and acknowledgement may not be in a proposal but in the final report they must
appear.
v) Abstract
This is the summary of the entire research proposal which indicates the research problem,
research objectives theoretical framework, research design, target population, sampling methods
data collection methods, quality control, data collection techniques, justification of the research.
vi)Table of content
List that indicates the order in which parts of research proposal appear
vii) List of tables
Indicate the order of tables as they appear in the text.
viii)List of figures
Show the order of figures in a research proposal.
ix) List of Acronyms and Abbreviations
Indicate full meaning of all the words written in short form in the text.
2 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
i)Background of the study
The background captures the following
 Concept of independent and dependent variable in relation to research problem
 The back ground of the problem to be discussed in global, regional and local context
 Justification of the location of the study
 Knowledge gap to be filled
ii) Statement of the problem
Refers to the gap between theory and practice which must be specific to the location of the study
and can be addressed through research
iii) General objective purpose of the study
It is the topic of the study written in an objective form e.g. the purpose of the proposed study is
to examine the effects of principals of leadership styles in students’ performance in K.C.S.E in
Nyeri County.
iv ) Specific objectives
Refers to particular statement of intent on what the study expects to achieve

33
v) Research question /hypothesis
Research questions: refers to objectives written in question form
Hypothesis: refers to tentative prediction of relationship among variables in a study
vi)Justification of the study: Rationale for carrying out the study
vii) Significance of the study
Refers to those who benefit from the study findings
viii) Scope of the study
The extent to which the study will be done in relation to geographical and target population ix)
ix Limitation of the study
The likely challenges to emerge in the study as well as measures to be taken to overcome the
challenges
xi) Assumptions of the study: What is perceived to be obvious for example the respondents will
give honest responses
xii) Theoretical framework – refers to the theories that provide an explanation on the
relationship among variables in the study

xiii) Conceptual framework

Refers to geographical explanation of the relationship among the variables
Components of conceptual framework
Independent variables: Variables that have an effect on another variable
Dependent Variable: Variable that reflects effect of the influence of the independent variables
Intervening variables: Variables assumed in the study
Arrows indicating the direction of the relationship among the variables

Importance of conceptual framework

 Defines the variables in the study.
 Defines the direction of the relationship among the variables
 Defines effect of the independent variables on the dependent variable
 Operationalizes variables
[Link] TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
i. Introduction; The section outlines component of the literature to be reviewed as
outlined which include variables to be reviewed; Review of independent variables as per
objectives
ii. Review of literature according to objectives
iii. Critic of the reviewed literature
iv. Research gaps
v. Summary of literature review
4 .CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
i)Introduction – In this section, all the parts of the chapter are outlined e.g research design,
target population, sampling method
ii)Research design: Strategy or plan of action to carry out research
iii) Target population: Refers to groups of elements, subjects or respondents of interest to the
researcher

34
iv) Sampling methods and sample size; Refers to techniques of selecting the sample and
arriving at the number of units, individuals or elements of interest to the researcher
v) Data collection instruments:
Describes the tools to be used in the data collection and how they will be developed which
include questionnaires, interviews, focus group discussion, document analysis and non-
participant and participant discussions
vi) Pilot study;A mini version of the whole study
vii) Reliability of the instruments: Ability of instruments to produce consistent results after
repeated trials
viii) Validity of the instruments: Refers to accuracy of the instruments
ix) Data collection procedures: Refers to processes of collecting instruments such getting
permission to carry out research and arranging the time for data collection
x) Data analysis techniques: Methods that will be used to analyze qualitative and quantitative
data
xi) Ethical considerations: Refers to norms or standards that guide relationship between the
researcher, participant and sponsors
5) References
6) Appendices
i. Letters of introduction
ii. Data collection instruments
iii. Budget of to show expenses
iv. Work plan or timelines to do research
COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
[Link]:
i. Cover page: (a) Title, Name of researcher, affiliation, date when the report was written
ii. Declaration
iii. Dedication
iv. Acknowledgement
v. Abstract
vi. List of figures
vii. List of tables
viii. List of abbreviations and acronyms
2. CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
i. Background of the study
ii. Statement of the problem
iii. Purpose of the study/general objective
iv. Specific objectives
v. Research hypothesis/Research questions
vi. Justification and significance
vii. Scope of the study
viii. Limitation
ix. Assumptions of the study
x. Theoretical framework (Can be in the end of chapter two)
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 xi. Conceptual framework (Can be in the end of chapter two)
xii. Operationalization of variables or definition of significant terms)
3. CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
i. Introduction; indicates the components in the chapter
ii. Theoretical literature
iii. Empirical literature with regard to study objectives
iv. Critique of literature
v. Research gaps
vi. Summary of literature review
4. CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
i. Introduction (Indicates the components in the chapter )
ii. Research design:
iii. Target population:
iv. Sampling methods and sample size;
v. Data collection instruments
vi. Pilot study
vii. Reliability of the instruments
viii. Validity of the instruments
ix. Data collection procedures
x. Data analysis techniques
xi. Ethical considerations
5. CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION
i. Introduction
ii. The return rate indicating e.g. the no of questionnaires that were returned . 70% return
rate is acceptable
iii. Analysis of background information such as level of education and gender of
respondents
iv. Analysis of data collected as per objective
6. CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
i. Introduction- In this section the component of chapter five are outlined
ii. Summary of findings according to each objective.
iii. Recommendations of the study according to each objective condition.
iv. Conclusions; based on study findings done as per objective
v. Areas for further research which indicating topic that can further be studied
7 References
8 Appendices
a. Data collection instruments
b. Letter of consent
c. Letter of Authority to carry out research
d. Map of the study area

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