BY

Suhani Bawa

Ba (Hons) Philosophy

sāṅkhya
(school of philosophy)
 INTRODUCTION
One of the oldest schools of Indian philosophy is the
Sāṁkhya school. This is true since Nyāya, Vaiśesika,
Yoga, Jainism, and Vedanta all adhere to the
fundamental principles of Sāṁkhya. The Kapila,author
of the "Sāṁkhya Sūtra" script, is credited as the
founder of Sāṁkhya philosophy. This text is frequently
referred to as Sāṁkhya Philosophy. Many academics
have commented on it, but Iśvarakṛsna "Sāṁkhya
Kārika" is considered to be the most important one.
There are two views on the origin of this school. Some
are believed that the word Sāṁkhya is derived from the
word ‘Saṁkhyā’ which means number as well as right
knowledge. Right knowledge is about understanding
the reality by specifying the number of ultimate
constituents of the universe. Others viewed that
Sāṁkhya means ‘perfect knowledge’ and that is about
the reality. With these introductions now let us know
Sāṁkhya’s metaphysics

METAPHYSICS
The Sāṁkhya Philosophy is regarded as dualistic
realism. It is dualistic because it holds the doctrine of
two ultimate realities; Prakṛti and Purusas. Further, it
maintains the plurality of Purusas (self) and the
existence of matter, hence, treated as pluralistic. It is
realism because they viewed that both matter and
spirit are equally real. The Sāṁkhya school expresses
that the self (Purusa) and the non-self (Prakriti) are
radically different form each other, as like, subject and
object. As subject can never be the object, similarly, an
object can never be the subject.
In this regard, a few important questions are addressed
here. Those are, ‘what is the ultimate cause of an
object?’ and, ‘what are the constituents of the
universe?’ In other words, what is the ultimate stuff of
which the various objects of the world are made?
The Sāṁkhya responds that all objects, including our
mind, body, and sense organs, have Prakriti as their
ultimate (initial) cause. Every effect, it is said, must
have a cause. For all types of creation in the cosmos,
cause and effect are two interdependent components.
THEORY OF CAUSATION
The Sāṁkhya theory of causation is known as
satkāryavāda. It explains the effect exists in its material
cause prior to its production.
The following arguments uphold by Sāmkhya to support
the theory satkāryavāda.
i) If the effect does not exist in the cause prior to its
operation, none can bring into existence out of the
cause.
ii) A particular effect can be produced out of a
particular material cause. A mud jar can be produced
out of clay only; cloth can be produced out of threads
only. Thus, it proves that the effects are existing in the
cause in a latent condition.
iii) If the effect is not related to its cause, then every
effect would arise from every cause. But this does not
happen. Every effect does not arise from every cause.
iv) The effect pre-exists in the cause since it can be
produced by a potent cause only. A potent cause has
causal energy to produce a particular effect. The causal
energy in this case is inferred from the perception of
the effect. If the effect is not existent in the cause, then
the causal energy can’t be related to it. If the causal
energy is unrelated to the effect, then any effect will
arise from any cause. Hence, the effect must be pre-
existent in its potent cause only.
v) The effect pre-exists in the cause since it is identical
in nature with its cause. The effect is not different from
the cause. The cause is existent and therefore, the
effect cannot be nonexistent. Hence, effect inheres in
its cause. This is so because there is no identity
between entity and non-entity.
Prakṛti
Prakṛti is the ultimate cause of the universe. It is
regarded as the first cause. All effects of the universe
are based upon it. Being the first element of the
universe, Prakṛti itself is uncaused, eternal, and all
pervading. Hence, it is called “pradhāna”. It can’t be
perceived but can be inferred from its effect. Thus, it is
known as ‘anumā’. In the form of conscious elements, it
is called jada, and in the form of the unmanifested
objects, it is called ‘avayakta’.
Objects are the effects of Prakṛti. These are dependant,
relative, many and non-eternal because they are
created and destroyed. But Prakṛti, on the other hand,
has neither beginning nor end. It is unborn,
independent, absolute, one, eternal and beyond
creation and destruction. Objects are limited within the
space-time continuum but Prakṛti is beyond of it.
Objects are manifest and composite but Prakṛti is
unmanifest and without parts. Thus, Vyāsa says that
Prakṛti is both ‘is’ and ‘is-not’.
Gunas of Prakṛti
The Sāṁkhya Philosophy advocates three gunas of
Prakṛti. These are; Sattva, rajas and tamas. Prakrti is a
state of equilibrium of these three gunas. The word
‘guna’ is understood here as quality or attribute. Now,
let us know about these three gunas.
i) Sattva: Sattva is that element of Prakṛti which is of
the nature of pleasure, light (laghu) and bright or
illuminating (prakāsaka). The tendency towards
conscious manifestation in the senses, the mind and
the intellect; the luminosity of light and the power of
reflection in a mirror or crystal are all due to the
operation of the element of Sattva in the constitution of
things. For example, blazing up a fire, upward curse of
vapour etc. Sattva is believed to be white.
ii) Rajas: Rajas is the principle of activity in things. Its
colour is red. It is active because of its mobility and
stimulation. It is also the nature of pain. For example,
on account of rajas, fire spread; wind blows; the mind
becomes restless, etc.
iii) Tamas: Tamas is the principle of passivity and
negativity in things. Its colour is black. It is opposed to
the Sattva guna because it is heavy, laziness,
drowsiness. It produces ignorance and darkness and
leads to confusion and bewilderment.
To create an object, Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas work in
opposition to each other as well as together. All things
in the world contain one of these three gunas. None of
them are independent. Each guna among them aims to
rule the other two. They therefore cannot exist in a
state of tranquillity. They can't be pure for even a
second, as a result. They are by their very nature
distorted since they are always changing. The gunas
undergo two different types of changes- Svarupa and
virupa.
Purusa
The Sāṁkhya Philosophy holds that Purusa, or self, is
an eternal entity. Purusa is the subject, the self, and
the knower. It can never be an object because while
non-existence cannot be shown in any way, the
existence of objects can be demonstrated in some
ways. The body, the mind (mānas), the ego
(ahaṁkāara), and intellect are not Purusa (buddhi). The
quality of consciousness does not reside in the
substance. It is pure consciousness itself. It is the
ultimate knower and the source of all knowledge. It
cannot be the thing we know. It is the impartial
observer who is always free and at ease. It is
independent of change, activity, and the space-time
continuum.
Evolution
The world and worldly objects are created because of
the contact between Prakṛti and Purusa. The Prakṛti
alone can’t create the world because it is material. In
the same manner the Purusa can’t create the world
independently because he is inactive. Hence, the
contact between Prakṛti and Purusa is necessary for the
evolution to start though they are possessing different
and opposite natures.
A sage named Kapila has described the order of
creation which is accepted by the Sāṁkhya Philosophy.
The order of creation is as follows.
i) Mahat
Mahat is the first product of evolution. It is cosmic in its
nature. Besides this fact, it has psychological aspect in
which it is called intellect or buddhi.
ii) Ahaṁkāra
Ahaṁkāra is understood as ‘ego’ in English. It is the
second product of evolution. Ego is identified as “I” or
“mine” feelings of an individual. Every individual has
buddhi, and since ahaṁkāra is a practical element of
buddhi, it is found in all individuals. Because of ego the
purusa looks upon himself as an active agent, desire
and strive for ends, and possesses characteristics. An
individual perceives an object through sense organs.
Then mind reflects on these perceptions and
determines their nature. Following this, the attitude of
‘mine’ and ‘for me’ is attributed to these objects. This is
nothing but regarded as ‘ego’. In this product
(ahaṁkāra), all these three gunas of prakruti operates.
iii) Mānas
According to the Sāṁkhya Philosophy, mānas or mind
is neither eternal nor atomic. It is constituted with parts
and thus can come into contact with the different sense
organs simultaneously. Mind helps to analyze and
synthesize the sense-data into determinate
perceptions. Being an internal sense organ, it is aware
of objects belonging to the past, present, and the
future.

iv) Jñānendriyas
Jñānendriyas are known as five sense organs; nose,
ears, eyes, skin, and tongue. On Sāṁkhya views, sense
is an imperceptible energy or force which exists in the
perceived organs and apprehends the object. This
implies, the sense is not the ears but their power of
hearing. Thus, the senses are not perceptible but can
infer. They are informed from the functions that they
perform. The five sense organs produce knowledge of
touch, colour, smell, heard, and taste. All these are
born because of the Purusa and they are the result of
ego or ahaṁkāra.
v) Karmendriyas
Karmendriyas is understood as the five organs of action
which reside in mouth, ears, feet, anus, and the sex
organ. They perform the functions respectively as
speech, hearing, movement,excretion, and
reproduction. The cause of the creation of these organs
is the desire of Purusa for his experience.
vi) Tanmātrās
There are five tanmātrās; sabda or sound, sparsa or
touch, rupa or form, rasa or taste, and gandha or smell.
All are very subtle because they are the elements of
the objects. Hence, they can’t be perceived but
inferred. The Sāṁkhya School viewed that the five
elements; earth, water, air, fire, and ether have their
origin in the five tanmātrās.
vii) Mahābhutas
There are five mahābhutas found in the cosmos
namely;
• Air or Vāyu
• Fire or Agni
• Akāsa or Ether
• Water or Jala
• Prathivi or Earth
Their respective qualities are; touch, colour, sound,
taste, and smell.
EPISTEMOLOGY
The Sāṁkhya philosophy recognizes three independent
sources of valid knowledge (Pramāna).These are;
perception, inference, and verbal testimony (sabda).
According to the Sāṁkhya, self possess knowledge. To
have knowledge of an object there should be contact
between object and sense organs. Again, the
connection must found between mind and sense
organs. Lastly, mind is related to mahat for cognition.
Thus the mahat becomes transformed into the form of
particular objects. Mahat being unconscious and
physical entity can’t generate knowledge alone. Hence,
it requires a conscious and eternal entity like Purusa.
Since Purusa is pure consciousness helps Prakrti to
generate knowledge.