Chapter 3
Cell Structures and Their Functions
Lecture Outline
Seeley’s ESSENTIALS OF ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY#Eleventh Edition
Cinnamon VanPutte
Jennifer Regan
Andrew Russo
Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or
distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.
Cell Structure
Organelles:
specialized structures in cells that perform
specific functions
Example: nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes
Cytoplasm:
jelly-like substance that holds organelles
Cell membrane:
also termed the plasma membrane
a structure that encloses the cytoplasm
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Generalized Cell
Figure 3.1
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Functions of the Cell
Smallest units of life
Cell metabolism and energy use
Synthesis of molecules
Communication
Reproduction and inheritance
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Cell Membrane
The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is the outermost component of a cell.
It forms a boundary between material in inside the cell and the outside.
Materials inside the cell are intracellular and those outside are extracellular.
It acts as a selective barrier.
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Cell Membrane Structure
The fluid-mosaic model is the model used to describe the cell membrane structure.
The membrane contains phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates.
Phospholipids form a bilayer.
Phospholipids contain 2 regions: polar and nonpolar.
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Phospholipid Structure
A phospholipid molecule has a polar head region that is hydrophilic and a nonpolar
tail region that is hydrophobic.
The polar region is exposed to water around the membrane.
The nonpolar region is facing the interior of the membrane.
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The Cell Membrane
Figure 3.2a
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Movement through the Cell Membrane
The cell membrane has selective permeability, which allows only certain substances
to pass in and out of the cell.
Substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and potassium are found in higher
concentrations inside the cell.
Substances such as sodium, calcium, and chloride are found in higher concentrations
outside the cell.
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Cell Membrane Passage 1
Some substances, like O2 and CO2, can pass directly through the cell membrane’s
phospholipid bilayer.
Some substances must pass through transmembrane protein channels, such as Na+
through its channels.
The route of transport through the membrane depends on the size, shape, and charge
of the substance.
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Cell Membrane Passage 2
Some substances require carrier molecules to transport them across the cell
membrane, such as glucose.
Some substances require a vesicular transport across the membrane.
The vesicle must fuse with the cell membrane for transport.
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Active Transport and Passive Transport 1
Passive membrane transport does not require the cell to expend energy.
Active membrane transport does require the cell to expend energy, usually in the
form of ATP.
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Active Transport and Passive Transport 2
Passive membrane transport mechanisms include diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated
diffusion.
Active membrane transport mechanisms include active transport, secondary active
transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis.
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Diffusion 1
Diffusion generally involves movement of substances in a solution down a
concentration gradient.
A solution is generally composed of two major parts, solutes and the solvent.
Solutes are substances dissolved in a predominant liquid or gas, which is called
the solvent.
Solutes, such as ions or molecules, tend to move from an area of higher
concentration of a solute to an area of lower concentration of that same solute in
solution.
This movement from high concentration to a low concentration is diffusion.
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Concentration Gradient
A concentration gradient is the difference in the concentration of a solute in a
solvent between two points divided by the distance between the two points.
The concentration gradient is said to be steeper when the concentration difference
is large and/or the distance is small.
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Diffusion 2
Figure 3.3
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Osmosis 1
Osmosis is the diffusion of water (a solvent) across a selectively permeable
membrane from a region of higher water concentration to one of lower water
concentration.
Osmosis exerts a pressure, termed osmotic pressure, which is the force required to
prevent movement of water across cell membrane
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Osmosis 2
Figure 3.4
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Osmotic Pressure and the Cell
Osmotic pressure depends on the difference of solution concentrations inside a cell
relative to outside the cell.
A cell may be placed in solutions that are either hypotonic, isotonic, or
hypertonic compared to the cell cytoplasm.
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Hypotonic
A hypotonic solution has a lower concentration of solutes and a higher
concentration of water relative to the cytoplasm of the cell.
The solution has less tone, or osmotic pressure, than the cell.
Water moves by osmosis into the cell, causing it to swell.
If the cell swells enough, it can rupture, a process called lysis.
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Isotonic
A cell immersed in an isotonic solution has the same solute concentrations inside
and outside the cell.
The cell will neither shrink nor swell.
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Hypertonic
The cytoplasm of a cell in a hypertonic solution has a lower solute concentration
and higher water concentration than the surrounding solution.
Water moves by osmosis from the cell into the hypertonic solution, resulting in
cell shrinkage, or crenation.
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Red Blood Cell Changes in Differing Solutions
Figure 3.5
David M. Phillips/Science Source
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Facilitated Diffusion 1
Lipid soluble substances such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and steroids can diffuse
directly through the phospholipid bilayer.
Water-soluble substances, such as ions, can diffuse across the cell membrane only
by passing through cell membrane channels or through carrier molecules.
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Facilitated Diffusion 2
Facilitated diffusion is a carrier-mediated transport process that moves substances
across the cell membrane from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration of that substance.
Because movement is with the concentration gradient, metabolic energy in the form
of ATP is not required.
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Diffusion through the Cell Membrane
Figure 3.6
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Leak and Gated Channels 1
Two classes of cell membrane channels include leak channels and gated channels.
Leak channels constantly allow ions to pass through.
Gated channels limit the movement of ions across the membrane by opening and
closing.
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Leak and Gated Channels 2
Figure 3.7
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Carrier Molecules 1
Carrier molecules are proteins within the cell membrane involved in facilitated
diffusion.
Move water soluble molecules or ions across the membrane.
They exhibit specificity; only specific molecules are transported by the carriers.
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Carrier Molecules 2
Figure 3.8
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Active Transport
Active transport is a carrier-mediated process, requiring ATP, that moves
substances across the cell membrane from regions of lower concentration to those of
higher concentration against a concentration gradient.
Active transport processes accumulate necessary substances on one side of the cell
membrane at concentrations many times greater than those on the other side.
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Sodium-Potassium Pump 1
A major example of active transport is the action of the sodium-potassium pump
present in cell membranes.
The sodium-potassium pump moves Na+ out of cells and K+ into cells.
The result is a higher concentration of Na+ outside cells and a higher
concentration of K+ inside cells.
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Sodium-Potassium Pump 2
Figure 3.9
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Secondary Active Transport 1
Secondary active transport uses the energy provided by a concentration gradient
established by the active transport of one substance, such as Na+ to transport
other substances.
No additional energy is required above the energy provided by the initial active
transport pump.
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Secondary Active Transport 2
In cotransport, the diffusing substance moves in the same direction as the initial
active transported substance.
In countertransport, the diffusing substance moves in a direction opposite to that
of the initial active transported substance.
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Secondary Active Transport 3
Figure 3.10
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Endocytosis
Endocytosis is a process that that brings materials into cell using vesicles.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs when a specific substance binds to the
receptor molecule and is transported into the cell.
Phagocytosis is often used for endocytosis when solid particles are ingested.
Pinocytosis has much smaller vesicles formed, and they contain liquid rather than
solid particles.
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Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
Figure 3.11
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Exocytosis 1
Exocytosis involves the use of membrane-bound sacs called secretory vesicles that
accumulate materials for release from the cell.
The vesicles move to the cell membrane and fuse, ultimately releasing the material
by exocytosis.
Examples of exocytosis are the secretion of digestive enzymes.
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Exocytosis 2
Figure 3.12
(b) ©Dr. Birgit H. Satir
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General Cell Structure
The interior of a cell is composed of the cytoplasm, which a jelly-like fluid that
surrounds the organelles.
Organelles are specialized structures that perform certain functions.
Organelles include the nucleus, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria, cytoskeleton, centrioles, cilia, flagella,
and microvilli.
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Generalized Cell 2
Figure 3.1
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Cell Nucleus 1
The nucleus is a large organelle usually located near the center of the cell.
The nucleus is bounded by a nuclear envelope, which consists of outer and inner
membranes with a narrow space between them.
The nuclear membrane contains nuclear pores, through which materials can pass into
or out of the nucleus.
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Cell Nucleus 2
The nuclei of human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes which consist of DNA and
proteins.
During most of a cell’s life, the chromosomes are loosely coiled and collectively
called chromatin.
When a cell prepares to divide, the chromosomes become tightly coiled and are
visible when viewed with a microscope.
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Cell Nucleus 3
Within the nucleus are Nucleoli, which are diffuse bodies with no surrounding
membrane. that are found within the nucleus
There are usually one to several nucleoli within the nucleus.
The subunits of ribosomes, a type of cytoplasmic organelle, are formed within a
nucleolus.
These ribosomal components exit the nucleus through nuclear pores.
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Cell Nucleus 4
Figure 3.13
(b,c) Don W. Fawcett/Science Source
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Chromosome Structure
Figure 3.14
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Ribosomes
Ribosome components are produced in the nucleolus.
Ribosomes are the organelles where proteins are produced.
Ribosomes may be attached to other organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum.
Ribosomes that are not attached to any other organelle are called free ribosomes.
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Ribosome Production
Figure 3.15
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Endoplasmic Reticulum 1
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of membranes forming sacs and tubules
that extends from the outer nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm.
The rough ER is involved in protein synthesis and is rough due to attached
ribosomes.
The smooth ER has no attached ribosomes and is a site for lipid synthesis, cellular
detoxification, and it stores calcium ions in skeletal muscle cells.
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Endoplasmic Reticulum 2
Figure 3.16a
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Golgi Apparatus 1
The Golgi apparatus, also called the Golgi complex, consists of closely packed
stacks of curved, membrane-bound sacs.
It collects, modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids manufactured
by the ER.
The Golgi apparatus forms vesicles, some of which are secretory vesicles,
lysosomes, and other vesicles.
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Golgi Apparatus 2
Figure 3.17
(b) Biophoto Associates/Science Source
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Lysosomes
Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles formed from the Golgi apparatus.
They contain a variety of enzymes that function as intracellular digestive systems.
Vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse with lysosomes in order to breakdown
materials in the endocytotic vesicles.
One example is white blood cells phagocytizing bacteria.
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Lysosome Action
Figure 3.18
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Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound vesicles containing enzymes that break down
fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty acid and amino acid breakdown and can be
toxic to a cell.
The enzymes in peroxisomes break down hydrogen.
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Mitochondria 1
Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion) are small organelles responsible for
producing considerable amounts of ATP by aerobic (with O2) metabolism.
They have inner and outer membranes separated by a space.
The outer membranes have a smooth contour, but the inner membranes have numerous
folds, called cristae, which project into the interior of the mitochondria.
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Mitochondria 2
The material within the inner membrane is the mitochondrial matrix and contains
enzymes and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA).
Cells with a large energy requirement have more mitochondria than cells that
require less energy.
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A Mitochondrion
Figure 3.19
(b) EM Research Services, Newcastle University
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The Cytoskeleton 2
The cytoskeleton gives internal framework to the cell.
It consists of protein structures that support the cell, hold organelles in place,
and enable the cell to change shape.
These protein structures are microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate
filaments.
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Microtubules
Microtubules are hollow structures formed from protein subunits.
The microtubules perform a variety of roles, including helping to support the
cytoplasm of cells, assisting in cell division, and forming essential components of
certain organelles, such as cilia and flagella.
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Microfilaments
Microfilaments are small fibrils formed from protein subunits that structurally
support the cytoplasm, determining cell shape.
Some microfilaments are involved with cell movement.
Microfilaments in muscle cells enable the cells to shorten, or contract.
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Intermediate Filaments
Intermediate filaments are fibrils formed from protein subunits that are smaller in
diameter than microtubules but larger in diameter than microfilaments.
They provide mechanical support to the cell.
A specific type of intermediate filament is keratin, a protein associated with skin
cells.
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The Cytoskeleton 1
Figure 3.20
(b) ©Don W. Fawcett/Science Source
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Centrioles
The centrosome is a specialized area of cytoplasm close to the nucleus where
microtubule formation occurs.
It contains two centrioles, which are normally oriented perpendicular to each
other.
Each centriole is a small, cylindrical organelle composed of microtubules.
The centriole is involved in the process of mitosis.
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Centriole
Figure 3.21
(b) Biology Media/Science Source
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Cilia
Cilia project from the surface of certain cells.
They are responsible for the movement of materials over the top of cells, such as
mucus.
Cilia are cylindrical structures that extend from the cell and are composed of
microtubules.
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Flagella
Flagella have a structure similar to that of cilia but are much longer, and they
usually occur only one per cell.
Sperm cells each have one flagellum, which propels the sperm cell.
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Microvilli
Microvilli are specialized extensions of the cell membrane that are supported by
microfilaments.
They do not actively move as cilia and flagella do.
Microvilli are numerous on cells that have them and they increase the surface area
of those cells.
They are abundant on the surface of cells that line the intestine, kidney, and
other areas in which absorption is an important function.
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Whole Cell Activity
A cell’s characteristics are determine by the type of proteins produced.
The proteins produced are in turn determined by the genetic information in the
nucleus.
Information in DNA provides the cell with a code for its cellular processes.
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DNA 1
DNA contains the information that directs protein synthesis; a process called gene
expression.
A DNA molecule consists of nucleotides joined together to form two nucleotide
strands.
The two strands are connected and resemble a ladder that is twisted around its long
axis.
Each nucleotide consists of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous
base.
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DNA 2
Each nucleotide on one DNA strand has a specific bonding pattern to another
nucleotide on the opposite strand.
A gene is a sequence of nucleotides that provides a chemical set of instructions
for making a specific protein.
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Gene Expression
Gene expression, which is protein synthesis, involves transcription and
translation.
Transcription involves copying DNA into messenger RNA.
Translation involves messenger RNA being used to produce a protein.
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Overview of Gene Expression
Figure 3.22
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Transcription 1
Transcription takes place in the nucleus of the cell.
DNA determines the structure of mRNA through transcription.
During transcription, the double strands of a DNA segment separate, and DNA
nucleotides of the gene pair with RNA nucleotides that form the mRNA.
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Transcription 2
DNA contains one of the following organic bases: thymine, adenine, cytosine, or
guanine.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) contains uracil, adenine, cytosine, or guanine.
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Transcription 3
DNA nucleotides pair only with specific RNA nucleotides.
DNA’s thymine pairs with RNA’s adenine.
DNA’s adenine pairs with RNA’s uracil.
DNA’s cytosine pairs with RNA’s guanine
DNA’s guanine pairs with RNA’s cytosine.
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Transcription 4
Figure 3.23
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Translation 1
Translation occurs in the cell cytoplasm after mRNA has exited the nucleus through
the nuclear pores.
The mRNA attaches to a ribosome.
Codons (3 nucleotide bases) on the mRNA are read by anticodons (3 nucleotide bases)
on transfer RNA (tRNA).
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Translation 2
Transfer RNA transports specific amino acids from the cytoplasm to the ribosome-
mRNA complex and initiates formation of the polypeptide chain.
The process continues until the entire polypeptide is completely formed.
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The Cell Cycle 1
During growth and development, cell division occurs to increase the number of cells
or replace damaged or dying ones.
This cell division involves a cell cycle.
The cell cycle includes two major phases: a nondividing phase, called interphase,
and a cell dividing phase, termed mitosis.
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The Cell Cycle 2
A cell spends most of its life cycle in interphase which is divided into three
phases:
G1 phase, during which the cell carries out normal metabolic activity
S phase, during which the DNA is replicated; and
G2 phase, during which the cell prepares to divide.
At the end of interphase, a cell has two complete sets of genetic material
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The Cell Cycle 3
Figure 3.24
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Cell Genetic Content
Each human cell (except sperm and egg) contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, a total of
46.
The sperm and egg contain 23 chromosomes total.
One pair of chromosomes are the sex chromosomes, which consist of two X
chromosomes if the person is a female or an X and Y chromosome if the person is a
male.
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Mitosis
Mitosis involves formation of 2 daughter cells from a single parent cell.
Mitosis is divided into four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
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Prophase
During prophase the chromatin condenses to form visible chromosomes.
Microtubules, termed spindle fibers, form to assist in breaking the centromere
between the chromatids and move the chromosomes to opposite sides of the cell.
The nuclear membrane dissolves.
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Metaphase
During metaphase, the chromosomes align near the center of the cell.
The movement of the chromosomes is regulated by the attached spindle fibers.
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Anaphase
At the beginning of anaphase, the chromatids separate and each chromatid is called
a chromosome.
Each of the two sets of 46 chromosomes is moved by the spindle fibers toward the
centriole at one of the poles of the cell.
At the end of anaphase, each set of chromosomes has reached an opposite pole of
the cell, and the cytoplasm begins to divide.
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Telophase
During telophase, the chromosomes in each of the daughter cells become organized to
form two separate nuclei, one in each newly formed daughter cell.
The chromosomes begin to unravel and resemble the genetic material during
interphase.
Following telophase, cytoplasm division is completed, and two separate daughter
cells are produced.
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The Cell Cycle
Figure 3.25
Ed Reschke/Photolibrary/Getty Images
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Tumors
Tumors are abnormal proliferations of cells.
They are due to problems occurring in the cell cycle.
Some tumors are benign and some are malignant (cancer).
Malignant tumors can spread by a process, termed metastasis.
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Differentiation
A sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a single cell, then a great number of
mitotic divisions occur to give the trillions of cells of the body.
The process by which cells develop with specialized structures and functions is
called differentiation.
During differentiation of a cell, some portions of DNA are active, but others are
inactive.
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Diversity of Cell Types
Figure 3.26
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Apoptosis
Apoptosis, termed programmed cell death, is a normal process by which cell numbers
within various tissues are adjusted and controlled.
In the developing fetus, apoptosis removes extra tissue, such as cells between the
developing fingers and toes.
In some adult tissues, apoptosis eliminates excess cells to maintain a constant
number of cells within the tissue.
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Cellular Aspects of Aging
There are various causes for cellular aging.
Existence of a cellular clock
Presence of death genes
DNA damage
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.