Topics to be covered Announcements

Overview Topic 1 Topic 2 Topic 3 Topic 4 Topic 5 Topic 6 Summary 1

 Topics to be covered Announcements

Overview Topic 1 Topic 2 Topic 3 Topic 4 Topic 5 Topic 6 Summary 2

 Topics to be covered Announcements

Overview Topic 1 Topic 2 Topic 3 Topic 4 Topic 5 Topic 6 Summary 3

 Subject Name
ATARNotes MONTH Lecture Series

Presented by:
YOUR NAME
4
Welcome!!
Topics to be covered

• AOS1: • AOS2:

• cells • plant vascular systems

• organelles • animal systems
• plasma membrane • digestive
• cell cycle • endocrine
• excretory
• homeostasis

Ask your questions throughout the lecture; I’ll be answering in the live chat ! J

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 5
 Who am I?
• Angelica
• Writer & medical student
• Graduated high school in 2019: 49 Biology, 47 English, 40 PE, ATAR: 97.25
• 2020-2022: Bachelor of Biomedical Science, Monash
• 2023: Bachelor of Medical Science and Doctor of Medicine (MD), Monash
• Have two cats and a dog
• Ran a virtual half marathon

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Cell Structure + Function Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes
• Prokaryotes: • Eukaryotes:
- No membrane bound nucleus - Membrane bound nucleus
- No membrane bound organelles - Membrane bound
- Not capable of true multicellularity organelles
- Reproduce via binary fission - Reproduce via mitosis and
meiosis

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 7
Cell Structure + Function Organelles

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 8
Cell Structure + Function Organelle Summary

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 9
Cell Structure + Function Mitochondria

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 10
Cell Structure + Function Chloroplast

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 11
Cell Structure + Function Some Biochemistry

• Hydrophilic molecules: • Hydrophobic molecules:

• Note: the suffix ‘-philic’ means • Note: the suffix ‘-phobic’
‘to like’, whilst the prefix means ‘to dislike’, whilst the
‘hydro-’ refers to water prefix ‘hydro-’ refers to water
• Able to dissolve in water • Will not dissolve in water
• Also called lipophobic or polar • Will interact with other
• e.g. proteins hydrophobic molecules
• Also called lipophilic or
non-polar
• e.g. oils, fats

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 12
Cell Structure + Function Think: Water + Oil

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 13
Cell Structure + Function The Plasma Membrane

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 14
Cell Structure + Function Phospholipids

• Phospholipids are amphipathic – they have a hydrophilic head

(phosphate + glycerol) and two hydrophobic fatty acid tails

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 15
Cell Structure + Function Cholesterol

• Function 1: to prevent the phospholipids from aggregating and

solidifying, thus maintaining the fluidity of the membrane

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 16
Cell Structure + Function Cholesterol

• Function 2: maintains the integrity of the membrane by preventing

the phospholipids from separating entirely, acting as a ‘glue’
component

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 17
Cell Structure + Function Transport Across Membranes

• Diffusion: the passive, net movement of molecules from a region of

high concentration to low concentration
High
Concentration

Low
Concentration

Equilibrium

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 18
Cell Structure + Function Transport Across Membranes

• Diffusion: the passive, net movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to low
concentration

• Simple diffusion: diffusion directly through the lipid bilayer

• Hydrophobic substances (alcohol, steroids, etc.)
• Very small uncharged molecules (water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc.)

• Facilitated diffusion: the passive, net movement of molecules across the

plasma membrane via transport proteins
• Large hydrophilic molecules (glucose, amino acids, etc.)
• Charged molecules (Na+, Ca2+, etc.)

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 19
Cell Structure + Function Transport Across Membranes

• Active Transport: active movement of molecules across the plasma

membrane against a concentration gradient
• Requires ATP

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 20
Cell Structure + Function Transport Across Membranes

• Osmosis: the net movement of water molecules across a semi-

permeable membrane from a region of high water concentration to
a region of low water concentration

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 21
Cell Structure + Function Transport Across Membranes

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 22
Cell Structure + Function
Total Surface Area = area of each side
Area of a Square = L2
Volume of a Cube = L3

3
2
1

1 2 3
Side Length = 1 Side Length = 2 Side Length = 3
Total Surface 6 Total Surface 24 Total Surface Area 54
Area Area
Volume 27
Volume 1 Volume 8
SA : V 6:1 SA : V 24 : 8 SA : V 54 : 27
(3 : 1) (2 : 1)

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 23
Cell Cycle Eukaryotic Cell Cycle

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 24
Cell Cycle Mitosis

PMAT

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 25
Cell Cycle Cytokinesis

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 26
Cell Cycle Binary Fission

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 27
Cell Cycle Eukaryotic Cell Cycle

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 28
Cell Cycle Pathways of Apoptosis

• Intrinsic
• mitochondrial pathway
• cell damage, including
radiation, damaged DNA
etc.

• Extrinsic
• death receptor pathway
• extracellular causes,
such as changed
conditions in extracellular
fluid, infection etc.

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 29
Cell Cycle Apoptosis

1. Activation of caspases is initiated

2. These caspases activate other caspases
(caspase cascade)
3. These final caspases breakdown the cell’s
cytoskeleton as well as proteins in the
nuclear membrane and Golgi apparatus
4. The cell shrinks and forms blebs
5. The cell breakdown into vesicles
containing digested cell contents
(apoptotic bodies)
6. Phagocytes are signalled to the site of
apoptosis and they phagocytose the
apoptotic bodies (prevents inflammation)
Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 30
Cell Cycle Excess Mitosis

• Excess mitosis can lead to neoplasms

• Benign – localised masses

• Potentially malignant – localised masses that will
eventually invade other tissues and transform into cancer
• Malignant (cancer) – masses that invade other tissues

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 31
Cell Cycle Oncogenes + Tumour Suppressor
Genes

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 32
Cell Cycle Cell Repair + Death

• What are mutagens?

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 33
Cell Cycle Environmental Factors

• Mutagens are factors which cause mutations in DNA (not to be confused

with mitogens)
• Carcinogens (a mutagen which effects TSGs or
proto-oncogenes) include:
– Chemical factors: cigarette smoke
– Physical factors: ionising radiation in X-rays
– Biological factors: HPV and cervical cancer

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 34
Cell Cycle Other Factors

• Loss of immunity: immunocompromised individuals may be

unable to detect and destroy neoplasms
• This can lead to the progression of malignant tumours, which
would otherwise be eliminated in a healthy individual

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 35
Cell Cycle Hallmarks of Cancer

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 36
Cell Cycle Stem Cells

A cell that is not yet differentiated and has the potential

to develop into different specialised cell types

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 37
Cell Cycle Stem Cell Totipotency

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 38
Cell Cycle Stem Cells

• Embryonic stem cells are totipotent or pluripotent. They can be

obtained from IVF programs and can replicate indefinitely.

• Adult stem cells are multipotent or unipotent. They function to

repair and regenerate damaged and aged tissues. Cannot replicate
indefinitely.

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 39
Plant Systems Levels of Cellular Organisation

Specialised
Cell Tissue Organ System Organism

Root hair cells Root tissue Roots Vascular bundles Plants

make up vascular system

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 40
Plant Systems What are Vascular Plants?

• Vascular plants are those which

have specialized tissues for
conducting water, minerals and
photosynthetic products through
the plant

• (nonvascular plants have

simplified tissues and absorb
water directly through osmosis
through their cell walls)

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 41
Plant Systems Transportation in Vascular Plants

• In vascular plants, transport occurs due to vascular bundles that

move water, mineral ions and sugars around the plant
• These vascular bundles consist of:
- Xylem: transports water and nutrients from roots to leaves
- Phloem: transports sugars produced from photosynthesis from
leaves to roots
- Lignin: provides strength and structure to plant

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 42
Plant Systems Xylem, Phloem + Lignin

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 43
Plant Systems Transpiration

• Water is absorbed through the root hair cells

• The water is pulled up through the roots into the stem using…
COHESION
• It pulls the water up like a vacuum

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 44
Plant Systems Stomata

• When it reaches the leaves of the plant, water can exit through the
stomata
• If the guard cells are full of water, they will open, letting water out
• If the guard cells are flaccid (not much water), they will close so no
more water can leave the plant

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 45
Plant Systems Factors Affecting Transpiration
Rate
• HUMIDITY
• transpiration decreases when there is a lot of water vapour in the air
• this reduces the water concentration between the leaves and air, so less water
molecules evaporate
• TEMPERATURE
• transpiration increases as temperature increases
• this is because heat energy increases the rate of water evaporation
• WIND
• as wind (air currents) increase, the rate of transpiration increases due to
increasing the rate of water evaporation
• TIME OF DAY
• the rate of transpiration decreases at night due to it being cooler and more
humid
Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 46
Plant Systems Translocation

• Movement of sucrose from the leaves to the rest of the plant

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 47
Animal Systems Digestive System

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 48
Animal Systems Digestive System

• The purpose of the digestive system is to obtain nutrients from food

by breaking it down
• Digestion is the breakdown of food into a form that can be used by
an organism for metabolism (chemical processes)
• Digestion can occur due to physical and chemical mechanisms
• As mammals are heterotrophs, they require eating other organisms
to obtain their nutrients. These nutrients are obtained from the
breakdown of organisms

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 49
Animal Systems Cellular Organisation

Specialised Cell: Villi

Tissue: Small intestine tissue

Organ: Small intestine

System: Digestive system

Organism: Humans!
Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 50
Animal Systems How the Kidneys Work

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 51
Animal Systems The Kidney

• Each kidney is made up of subsections called

nephrons
• Blood enters the kidney from the aorta (part of
the circulatory system)
• It enters the Bowman’s capsule, which filters
out blood cells and proteins (only water and
small molecules pass through)
• The solution (with water and small molecules)
passes through tubing, where salts, glucose,
amino acids and water is absorbed
• Everything that is not reabsorbed is excreted in
urine

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 52
Animal Systems Cellular Organisation

Specialised Cell: Nephrons

Tissue: Kidney tissue

Organ: Kidney

System: Excretory system

Organism: Humans!

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 53
Animal Systems Endocrine System

• Glands are organs located around the body. Endocrine glands

produce and store hormones for release into the bloodstream
• They regulate how much of each hormone is released, depending
on the levels of hormones (or other substances) already present in
the blood
• Things such as stress, infection and changes in fluid balance can
affect hormone levels

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 54
Animal Systems Cellular Organisation

Specialised Cell: Secretory epithelial cells

Tissue: Glandular tissue

Organ: Glands

System: Endocrine system

Organism: Humans!

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 55
Homeostasis Stimulus-response Model

• Stimulus: a change in the

environment (either external or
internal)
• Receptor: transform environmental
stimuli into electrical nerve impulses
• Impulses are then transmitted via
neurons to the central nervous
system
• Signal is transmitted via neurons to
effectors
• Effectors: organs that produce a
response to a stimulus

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 56
Homeostasis Stimulus-response Model

The brain
STIMULUS: sends RESPONSE:
message via you eat all the
Garlic bread in efferent
the oven RECEPTOR: garlic bread
Signal is neurons
Chemoreceptors passed to the
in nose smell brain via
that magic afferent
neurons

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 57
Homeostasis Hormones

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 58
Homeostasis Ways of Controlling
Homeostasis

Water regulation
Thermoregulation
(osmoregulation)

Blood glucose
regulation

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 59
Homeostasis Homeostatic Malfunctions
overproduction of thyroxine lack of insulin

Overview Cell Structure + Function Cell Cycle Plant Systems Animal Systems Homeostasis 60
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