SUB MODULE 2

DIRECT STRESSES
Definition

Direct stress (also called normal stress) is the type of stress that acts perpendicular (at right
angle) to the cross-sectional area of a material when a load is applied.

It can be tensile (pulling apart) or compressive (pushing together).

σ=F/A

Where:

 σ = direct (normal) stress (N/m² or Pa)

 F = axial load (N)
 A = cross-sectional area (m²)

Load; In engineering, a load is any external force, weight, or action applied to a structure or
machine that causes stress, deformation, or motion.

Loads are what a structure must safely carry, resist, or transfer to the ground through support.

Stress: When some external forces are applied to a body, then the body offers resistance
to these forces. The magnitude of the resisting force is numerically equal to the applied
forces. This internal resisting force per unit area is called 'stress'.
However, we name this subject as "Strength of Materials", but at no stage we try to
determine the strength of the material, we always calculate the stress in the material.
In order to understand the concept of stress, consider a body under the action of a number
of forces as shown in Fig. 1-3 (a). If an imaginary cut is made by passing a cross-section
1-1 and the left portion is drawn separately as shown in Fig. 1-3 (b), now consider the
elementary force F acting on the elementary area A. Then by definition:
 (a) Body subjected to many forces (b) Defining stress at a
point Fig. above Understanding stress

Stress:
The dimensional units of stress are N / m2 (Newton per metre squared) and is always
supposed to act at a point.

Normal stress: In Fig. 1-3 (b), the force F can be resolved into components such that one
of

them is along the outward drawn normal n to the area A (since there can be only one
normal at a point) and the other components lie in the plane of the area A.

The normal stress may be tensile or compressive depending upon the forces acting on the
material to be either of the pull or push type respectively. Tensile and compressive
stresses together are called direct stresses.

Saint‐Venant's Principle
It states that the "stress and strain produced at points in a body sufficiently removed from
the region of load application will be the same as the stress and strain produced by any
applied loadings that have the same statically equivalent resultant, and are applied to the
body within the same region.

Consider the set of three identical rectangular strips under compressive loadings as shown in
Figure 5-7. As indicated, the only difference between each problem is the loading. Because the
total resultant load applied to each problem is identical (statically equivalent loadings), it is
expected that the resulting stress, strain, and displacement fields near the bottom of each strip
would be approximately the same.
Saint-Venant’s Principle asserts that stress measured at any point on an axially loaded cross-
section is uniform if it is far enough away from the point of load application or if there is any
discontinuity in the member’s cross-section. In other words, when we compute stress using
conventional methods, i.e.,

σ=P/A

we assume that we are sufficiently far from the point of application or any discontinuity for the
normal stress to be uniform.

When a point load is applied to a surface, the stress is concentrated at the point of application
and eventually equalizes as the distance from the point increases. This stress increase, also
known as a stress riser, occurs when the material’s cross-section changes abruptly

Hooke's law
States that, for relatively small deformations of an object, the displacement or size
of the deformation is directly proportional to the deforming force or load
A material is said to be elastic if it returns to its original, unloaded dimensions when load
is removed. A particular form of elasticity which applies to a large range of engineering
materials, at least over part of their load range, produces deformations which are
proportional to the loads producing them. Since loads are proportional to the stresses they
produce and deformations are proportional to the strains, this also implies that, whilst
materials are elastic, stress is proportional to strain. Hooke’s law states that the applied
force F equals a constant k times the displacement or change in length x, or F = kx.
The value of k depends not only on the kind of elastic material under consideration but also
on its dimensions and shape.
It will be seen in later sections that this law is obeyed within certain limits by most ferrous
alloys and it can even be assumed to apply to other engineering materials such as concrete,
timber and non-ferrous alloys with reasonable accuracy.
Whilst a material is elastic the deformation produced by any load will be completely
recovered when the load is removed; there is no permanent deformation.

 Modulus of elasticity
Within the elastic limits of materials, i.e. within the limits in which Hooke's law applies, it
has stress

been shown that strain constant

This constant is given the symbol E and termed the modulus of elasticity or Young's
modulus. Thus

stress
E (2.1) strain
P L PL
(2.2)
A L A L
Young's modulus E is generally assumed to be the same in tension or compression and for
most engineering materials has a high numerical value. Typically, E = 200 x 109 N/m2 for
steel, so that it will be observed from (2.1) that strains are normally very small since

E
(2.3)
In most common engineering applications strains do not often exceed 0.001 or 0.1%.
The actual value of Young’s modulus for any materials is normally determined by carrying
out a standard tensile on a specimen of the material.

 Poisson's ratio
Poisson ratio is the ratio of transverse contraction (or expansion) strain to
longitudinal extension strain in the direction of stretching force. Tensile
deformation is considered positive and compressive deformation is considered
negative.
When a material is subjected to longitudinal deformation then the lateral dimensions also
change. The ratio of the lateral strain to longitudinal strain is a constant quantity called the

Poisson's ratio and is designated by or 1/m. Lateral strain

Longitudinal strain (2.4)

Strain, Stress, and Poisson's Ratio
When a material receives a tensile force P, it has a stress that corresponds to the applied force. In
proportion to the stress, the cross section contracts and the length elongates by ΔL from the
length L the material had before receiving the tensile force (see illustration in Fig. 1) below.
The ratio of the elongation to the original length is called a tensile strain and is expressed as
follows:

See the lower illustration in Fig. 1. If the material receives a compressive force, it bears a
compressive strain expressed as follows:

For example, if a tensile force makes a 100 mm long material elongate by 0.01 mm, the strain
initiated in the material is as follows:
Thus, strain is an absolute number and is expressed with a numeric value with x10-6 strain, με or
μm/m suffixed.
Based on Hooke's law, the relation between stress and the strain initiated in a material by an
applied force is expressed as follows:

Stress is thus obtained by multiplying strain by the Young's modulus. When a material receives a
tensile force P, it elongates in the axial direction while contracting in the transverse direction.
Elongation in the axial direction is called longitudinal strain and contraction in the transverse
direction, transverse strain. The absolute value of the ratio between the longitudinal strain and
transverse strain is called Poisson's ratio, which is expressed as follows:

Poisson's ratio differs depending on the material.

strain energy
of structures, like strain energy of solids, In physics, the elastic potential energy gained by a wire
during elongation with a tensile (stretching) or compressive (contractile) force is called strain
energy. For linearly elastic materials, strain energy is:

U= ½VꝹẸ = ½VEẸ² = ½V/EꝹ²

E = Ꝺ/Ẹ

where σ is stress, ε is strain, V is volume, and E is Young's modulus:

Resilience

Is the amount of energy the material can absorb and still return to its original
state. If we are talking about stressing the material and having it return to its
original state, we are talking about the material remaining in the elastic region of
the stress-strain curve

Resilience is the ability of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically, and
release that energy upon unloading. Proof resilience is defined as the maximum energy that can
be absorbed up to the elastic limit, without creating a permanent distortion. The modulus of
resilience is defined as the maximum energy that can be absorbed per unit volume without
creating a permanent distortion. It can be calculated by integrating the stress–strain curve from
zero to the elastic limit. In uniaxial tension, under the assumptions of linear elasticity,

Uṛ = Ꝺ²γ/2E = Ꝺ²Ẹγ/2

where Ur is the modulus of resilience, σy is the yield strength, εy is the yield strain,
and E is the Young's modulus .This analysis is not valid for non-linear elastic
materials like rubber, for which the approach of area under the curve until elastic
limit must be used.
Unit of resilience

Modulus of resilience (Ur) is measured in a unit of joule per cubic meter (Jꞏm−3) in the SI system,
i.e. elastical deformation energy per surface of test specimen (merely for gauge-length part).

Like the unit of tensile toughness (UT), the unit of resilience can be easily calculated by using
area underneath the stress–strain (σ–ε) curve, which gives resilience value, as given below:

Ur = Area underneath the stress–strain (σ–ε) curve up to yield = σ × ε

Ur [=] Pa × % = (Nꞏm−2)ꞏ(unitless)
Ur [=] Nꞏmꞏm−3
Ur [=] Jꞏm−3

Impact load
Is defined as the force provided by a sudden load on a structural part instead of a
constant and sustained force applied over a long period.

COMPOUND BAR
A tensile or compressive member which consists of two or more bars/tubes in parallel,
of different materials is called a 'compound bar'. Q – 1 A rod of length 'l' tapers uniformly
from a diameter 'D' at one end to a diameter 'd' at the other.
TEMPERATURE STRESSES
Thermal stress is the stress produced by any change in the temperature of the
material. Thermal stress is induced in a body when the temperature of the body is raised
or lowered and the body is not allowed to expand or contract freely. Thermal stress includes
both heat and cold stress
STRESS CONCENTRATION
A stress concentration is defined as high localized stress, compared to the average stress of
the body, and is typically found in a region that has an abrupt geometric change or discontinuity.
The body tends to fail at the location of a high-stress concentration or stress riser.
Or is a location in an object where the stress is significantly greater than the surrounding
region