Industrial Electronics –Module 1 1

Brief History of Industrial Electronics

 1890 - Nicola Tesla demonstrates the use of electronics for the remote control of a model
boat.
 1904 - Sir John Fleming develops the Fleming vaIve, which is the first vacuum tube used for
rectifying AC to DC.
 1907 - Lee de Forest discovers the vacuum tube amplifier.
 1928 - Electronic control of a DC motor is accomplished using vacuum tubes.
 1938 - German scientist Walter Schottky invents the semiconductor tube.
 1941 - The first commercially made variable-speed AC motor control system is developed.
This system varies the frequency of the motor by using vacuum-tube technology.
 1947 - Three American scientists, John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley,
invent the transistor.
 1957 - The first solid-state variable-speed motor control system becomes commercially
available.
 1960 - Development of the laser for materials processing and communications.
 1968 - First programmable controller is developed by engineers at General Motor's
Hydramatic division.
 1970 - The first commercial fiber optic cable is installed.
 1971 - Ted Hoff invents microprocessor.
 1979 - Optical sensors are developed providing vision to industrial controllers.
 1986 - Robots with limited artificial intelligence become commercially available.
 1994 - 64-bit microprocessor commercially available.

Power Electronics
 Electronics: Solid State Electronics Devices and their Driving Circuits.
 Power: Static and Dynamic Requirements for Generation, Conversion and Transmission of
Power.
 Control: The Steady State and Dynamic Stability of the Closed Loop System.

POWER ELECTRONICS may be defined as the application of Solid State Electronics for Control
and Conversion of Power.
 Industrial Electronics –Module 1 2

Block Diagram
Simplified Block Diagram for a Power Electronics System

A Diagram Present an Electrical-Mechanical Systems

General Applications of Power Electronics

 Electrical Applications
 Electro-mechanical Applications
 Electro-chemical Applications.

Power electronics is everywhere you look. For example, power

electronics is used in
> computers
> automobiles
> telecommunications
> space systems and satellites
> motors
> lighting
> alternative energy (like solar and wind).
 Industrial Electronics –Module 1 3

The main areas of power electronics research include:

 Electronic devices (like diodes and transistors)
 Control and regulation
 Power converter circuit design and work with various topologies for converter circuits
 Magnetic components (such as transformers and inductors)
 Electronic circuit packaging and manufacturing
 Control of electrical motors

Important Features of Power Electronics

 Switching Speed
 Power Handling
Capabilities

Recent growth in Power Electronics

 The field of power electronics has recently experienced unprecedented growth.
 The revolutionary advances made in the microelectronics field which led to the
development of very efficient, and highly integrated circuits (IC’s) used for generation of
control signals for processing and control purposes.

Industrial Electronics
 It is a branch of electronics that deals with power electronic devices like: thyristors, SCRs,
AC/DC drives, etc.
 It covers all the methods and facets of: control systems, instrumentation, mechanism and
diagnosis, signal processing and automation of various industrial applications.
 The core research areas of industrial electronics include electrical power machine designs,
power conditioning and power semiconductor devices. A lot of consideration is given to
power economy and energy management in consumer electronic products.
 The scope of industrial electronics ranges from design and maintenance of simple electrical
fuses to complicated programmable logic controllers, solid-state devices and motor drives.
 Industrial electronics can handle the automation of all types of modern electrical and
mechanical industrial processes.
 Industrial Electronics –Module 1 4

 Some of the specialty equipment used in industrial electronics are:

- variable frequency converter and inverter drives
- human machine interfaces
- hydraulic positioners
- computer or microprocessor controlled robotics.
 Industrial electronics are used extensively in:
- chemical processing plants
- oil/gas/petroleum plants
- mining and metal processing units
- electronics and semiconductor manufacturing etc.

Applications of industrial Electronics

Industrial Electronic circuits are used in a wide variety of applications
including:
rectification
motor control
amplification
regulation
process control.

Almost all of these circuits use semiconductor devices to perform

efficient control of circuits and machines. Modern factories are equipped with
robots, variable-speed drives, and microprocessor-controlled systems
Other application of industrial electronics is in the field of measurement.
 By using transducers it is possible to convert almost any quantity into and electrical signal.
 Transducers are used to measure:
- temperature - pressure position
- density - speed
- weight - humidity

Typical applications of these types of industrial measuring devices are:

 detecting pinholes in sheets of metal or tiny fragments of metal in boxes of cereal.
 Industrial process signals can be transferred great distances using local-area networks
(LANs). A LAN is system that interconnects data communication components in an area with
a radius of several miles. Essentially, a LAN is a private, on-site communications, system
that allows communication among computers, PLCs, robots, and computer numerical control
(CNC) machines.
 Other application of Industrial electronic equipment include photoelectric control which
converts information in light beams to electrical signals photoelectric control are used for
detecting motion or the presence of and object.
Other photoelectric devices are used for a variety of applications, including
- gauging the thickness of wire
- detecting flaws in paint surfaces
- for sorting objects by color.
 Industrial Electronics –Module 1 5

Industrial electronic circuits are used in the manufacture of nearly all consumer
products. The automobile industry relies on automation and electronic control to
manufacture state-of-the-art products. Machines are now building machines, resulting in
highly efficient factories using less and less man power.

Industrial electronic technicians are now employed in industry to design,

maintain and troubleshoot a large variety of sophisticated electronic equipment
including programmable controllers (PLCs) and robotic equipment.

A PLC is a device that is controlled by the software commands to sequence end time events.
PLCs were originally developed by the automotive Industry to replace relay logic control circuits.

Before the invention of the PLC, the problem of Industrial control was usually solved by
the use of electromechanical relays or by hardwired solid-state logic blocks. However, they involved a
vast amount of interconnection and rewiring each time a modification to the system was required.
A PLC is a type of industrial computer that is used to solve control problems by writing
programs. These programs are often written in a format similar to relay logic schematic diagrams. This
programming language is called ladder logic.

The field of robotics has been constantly evolving since the 1960's. Typical applications for
robots include spray painting, welding, assembly material handling (picking and placing), and
machining. Robots are generally classified by their lifting capacity, type of control utilized, power
supply, and type of motion produced, the power supplied to a robot can be either electrical, hydraulic,
or pneumatic.

Specific Applications of INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS

Aircraft Inverters Frequency converters

Battery chargers Lasers Garage door openers
Blowers Latching relays Heat control
Boilers Lathes Induction heating
industrial process control
Burglar alarms Light control Radar
Communications Machine tools Regulators
Converters Measuring devices Servo systems
Cranes Motor control Solenoid drivers
Dimmers Oven controls Welding machines
Electromagnets Power line conditioners
Fans Power supplies
 Industrial Electronics –Module 1 6

The Elements of POWER ELECTRONICS

The elements of power electronics

 The Semiconductor Power Switch
- Power Diodes ( Diodes)
- Thyristors (SCR)
- Power MOSFETs (MOSFET)
- Power BJT (Insulated gate bipolar transistor or IGBT)
 Energy storage/transfer elements
- Inductor
- Capacitor
- Transformer
 Energy conversion
- Electrical to Electrical
 dc - dc converters
 ac - dc rectifiers
 dc - ac inverter
 ac - ac cycloconverter

- Solar to electrical
 Typically a dc-dc converter is involved
 Remote power needs
 Clean energy

- Electrical to mechanical
 Variable speed drives
– Induction machines
– Permanent magnet synchronous machines (PMSM)
– Brush type dc machines

– Mechanical to electrical
 Power generation
- Wind turbines
- Synchronous machine
 Industrial Electronics –Module 1 7

Power Diode
 Ratings  Commutation
– Blocking voltage – Forward biased
– Current rating – Current must be flowing through the device
– Junction capacitance and reverse recovery time

Thyristors
 Ratings  Commutation
– Blocking voltage – Forward biased
– Current rating – Current must be flowing through the device
– Gate needs to be activated (current pulse)
– Junction capacitance and reverse recovery time

Power MOSFET
 Ratings  Commutation
– Blocking voltage – Operates in Linear/Triode region
– Current rating – Gate needs to be activated (gate source voltage)
– Drain source overshoot (stray inductance)

Power BJT or IGBT

 Ratings  Characteristics
– Blocking voltage – Complicated Semiconductor device
– Current rating  MOSFET/BJT hybrid
 MOSFET used for ease of control
 BJT used for high current carrying capabilities
– Gate needs to be activated (gate emitter voltage)

Ac-dc Conversion
 Basic Rectifier Circuits
– Single phase
 Half Bridge
 Full Bridge
 Poly-phase conversion
- Three-phase
- M-phase
– Same concepts as the single-phase equivalents but more switches

Typical Rectifier Circuit Elements

 Diode
 SCR
 Inductor
 Capacitor
 Industrial Electronics –Module 1 8

SEMICONDUCTOR POWER SWITCHES

Switching of Power semiconductor devices is where the power electronics is primarily based.
With the development of power semiconductor technology, the power handling capabilities and the
switching speed of the power devices have improved.
In 1957, the first thyristor, the SCR (Silicon-Controlled Rectifier) was developed. Since then,
there have been tremendous advances in the power semiconductor devices. Until 1970, the conventional
thyristors have been exclusively used for power control in industrial applications.

FOUR TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTOR POWER SWITCHES:

1. Power Diodes
2. Thyristors
3. Power BJTs
4. Power MOSFETs

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
 In Industrial electronics circuits, diodes are generally intended to handle large amounts of
current.
 Semiconductor diodes are much more efficient and reliable than tube-type diodes.
 Although diodes are manufactured using both silicon and germanium, silicon diodes are by far
the most popular in industrial applications.
 Silicon diodes are capable of handling thousands of amperes of current with excellent thermal
stability.

SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER DIODES:

 Most of the power diodes are constructed using silicon.
 Power diode is a two- terminal device, anode A(+) and cathode K(-).
 No control terminal through which they can control its ON and OFF switching operations.
 Ideal power diode is an uncontrolled static switch that turns ON and turns OFF by itself.
 Turns On automatically whenever the external circuit can send a forward current through it.
 Turns OFF automatically whenever the external circuits attempt to send a reverse current
through it by impressing a reverse voltage.
 It is most frequently used in the rectification process (AC to DC)
Diodes used in power electronics applications are generally required to have special
characteristics, these are:
o High breakdown voltage and high current carrying capability;
o Small switching time delays and small current rise and fall times;
o Negligible reverse recovery (i.e. charge removal at turn OFF is negligible);
o Low voltage drop when conducting.
Unfortunately, it is not possible to achieve all of these criteria with one single style of diode and
thus a number of different types of power diode are available for various applications. It is up to the circuit
designer to judge which component is best suited for a particular application. This will often result in a
conflict between what is required and what is available and it is here the circuit design can be very
important.
 Industrial Electronics –Module 1 9

TYPES OF POWER DIODES

The most common diodes used in rectifier circuits, switching and inverter and converter circuits
are:

Table 1. THREE MOST TYPES OF POWER DIODES

TYPE tRR(typical) Voltage Rating Current Rating
General 25µsec 50V to 5KV < 1 A to several
Purpose thousands
Fast Recovery <5µsec 50V to 5KV < 1 A to several
(or High Speed) hundreds
Schottky <1µsec Limited to 100V < 1 A to 300A

Table 2: Diode ratings

Type Max. Breakdown Max. Forward Switching Applications
Voltage Current Voltage Speed
Rating Drop

High Voltage 30kV - ~10V ~100ms HV circuits

Rectifier
Diodes

General ~5kV ~10kA 0.7 – ~25µs 50Hz or 60Hz

Purpose 2.5 V Rectifiers
diodes

Fast ~3kV ~2kA 0.7 – <5µs SMPS,Inverters,

Recovery 1.5 V Resonant ckts.

Schottky ~100V ~300A 0.2 – ~30ns LV HF

Diodes 0.9 V Rectification

Power Zener Operates in break ~75 A - - References,

Diodes down ~300 V Voltage Clamps
From Table 2 general trends can be seen. If high voltage and high current ratings are needed then general
purpose diodes can be used; this is as long as switching speeds are not too important. The faster switching
diodes have restricted voltage and current ratings and if they are used in high stress application they must
be placed in parallel and series to avoid damage.
 Industrial Electronics –Module 1 10

SYMBOL OF POWER DIODE

K A

TYPICAL PACKAGES

(a)Typical medium power diode (b) Power diode mounted on an air-

cooled heat sink.
V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER DIODES.

Forward Voltage Drop , Vf

Notice that the diode conducts a small current in the forward direction up to a threshold voltage, 0.3 for
germanium and 0.7 for silicon; after that it conducts as we might expect. The forward voltage drop, V f, is
specified at a forward current, If.
Leakage current
In the reverse direction there is a small leakage current up until the reverse breakdown voltage is
reached. This leakage is undesirable, obviously the lower the better, and is specified at a voltage less than
breakdown, diodes are intended to operate below their breakdown voltage.
 Industrial Electronics –Module 1 11

Current Rating
The current rating of a diode is determined primarily by the size of the diode chip, and both the material
and configuration of the package, Average Current is used, not RMS current. A larger chip and package
of high thermal conductivity are both conducive to a higher current rating.
Switching
The switching speed of a diode depends upon its construction and fabrication. In general the smaller
the chip the faster it switches, other things being equal. The chip geometry, doping levels, and the
temperature at nativity determine switching speeds. The reverse recovery time, trr, is usually the limiting
parameter; trr is the time it takes a diode to switch from on to off.
The very minimal diode specifications are:
(a)Maximum reverse voltage
(b)Rated forward current
(c)Maximum forward voltage drop
(d)Maximum leakage current
(e)Package style
(f)Maximum reverse recovery time

REVERSE RECOVERY CHARACTERISTICS

The current in a forward-biased junction diode is made up of Majority carriers and Minority
carriers.
Once there is a forward current, there will be free minority carriers. A forward-conducting
diode whose forward current has been reduced to zero, will continue to conduct for some small time after
due to minority carriers stored in the pn-junction and carriers stored in the bulk semiconductor material.
The forward current in a diode goes to zero if the diode goes from forward biased to reverse
biased, or in other words V goes from +ve to -ve.
According to the characteristics of a diode, ignoring the leakage current, when reverse biased
there should be no reverse current once the reverse voltage does not exceed in magnitude to the
breakdown voltage.
However, in practice, the diode does exhibit a reverse characteristic for a short space of time
due to the free carriers. These minority carriers require some finite time, the reverse recovery time, to
recombine with opposite charges in order to be neutralized. This time is called the reverse recovery time.
 Two reverse recovery characteristics exist. They are:
1. Soft recovery
2. Abrupt recovery

Reverse recovery characteristics

 Industrial Electronics –Module 1 12

trr = reverse recovery time, measured as the time between the initial zero crossing of the diode current to
the time when this current reaches 25% of the peak reverse current.
IRR = maximum reverse current or reverse recovery current
ta = time between zero crossing and the maximum reverse current and it is due to the charge stored in the
depletion region of the junction
tb = time between maximum reverse current IRR and 25% of the of the maximum reverse current IRR and is
due to charge stored in the bulk semiconductor material
t
S  b = softness factor
ta
 The reverse recovery time is measured from the initial zero crossing from forward conduction to
reverse blocking condition of the diode current to 25% of the maximum reverse current IRR.
 Its magnitude depends on:
1. junction temperature
2. rate of fall of forward current
3. forward current prior to commutation

DERIVATION OF THE FORMULA

From the graph it can be seen that,
𝒕𝒓𝒓 = 𝒕𝒂 + 𝒕𝒃 EQN 1

By ratio and proportion:

di I RR

dt ta
𝒅𝒊 EQN 2
𝑰𝑹𝑹 = 𝒕𝒂
𝒅𝒕

Reverse Recovery Charge, QRR

This is the amount of charge carriers that flow across the diode in the reverse direction due to
changeover from forward conduction to reverse blocking condition. Its value is determined from the area
enclosed by the path of the reverse recovery current (Recall Δ Q = Δ I Δ t). That is
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑸𝑹𝑹 = 𝑰𝑹𝑹 𝒕𝒂 + 𝑰𝑹𝑹 𝒕𝒃 = 𝑰𝑹𝑹 𝒕𝒓𝒓 EQN 3
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟐𝑸𝑹𝑹 EQN 4
𝑰𝑹𝑹 =
𝒕𝒓𝒓
From equations EQN 2 and EQN 4 we get
𝟐𝑸𝑹𝑹 𝒅𝒊
𝑰𝑹𝑹 = = 𝒕𝒂
𝒕𝒓𝒓 𝒅𝒕

𝟐𝑸𝑹𝑹 EQN 5
𝒕𝒂 𝒕𝒓𝒓 =
𝒅𝒊⁄
𝒅𝒕
 Industrial Electronics –Module 1 13

SOFT RECOVERY
ta  tb
From EQN 1
t RR  2 ta
t RR
ta  EQN 6
2
Substitute EQN 6 to EQN 2
t di
I RR  RR * EQN 7
2 dt
Substitute EQN 6 to EQN 5
4QRR
t RR  EQN 8
di dt

Substitute EQN 8 to EQN 7

di
I RR  QRR EQN 9
dt

ABRUPT RECOVERY
t a  t b
From EQN 1
t RR  t a EQN 10
Substitute EQN 10 to EQN 2
di
I RR  t RR * EQN 11
dt
Substitute EQN 10 to EQN 5

2Q RR
t RR  EQN 12
di dt

Substitute EQN 10 to EQN 7

di
I RR  2 * Q RR EQN 13
dt
 Industrial Electronics –Module 1 14

Problem No. 1
The reverse recovery time of a diode is 5µsec and the rate of current is 80A/µsec. If the
softness factor is 0.5, determine:
(a) QRR, stored charge
(b) IRR, reverse recovery current

Given:
tRR = 5µsec
di
 80 A /  sec
dt
t
S  b  0 .5
ta
Find:
a. QRR = ?
b. IRR = ?

Solution:

a. Using EQN 5: where:

2QRR
ta t RR  t b  t RR  t a
di / dt
t t di t RR  t a
QRR  a RR  0.5
2 dt ta
2 t RR  1.5 t a
t RR di
Q RR  t RR
1.5 ( 2 ) dt ta 
1.5
( 5 s )2
QRR  ( 80 A / s )
3
QRR  666.667 C
c. Using EQN 2
di
I RR  t a
dt
5 s
I RR  ( 80 A / s )
1.5
I RR  266.4 A
 Industrial Electronics –Module 1 15

Problem No. 2
The reverse recovery time of a diode is 1µsec and the rate of current is 30A/µsec. Determine:
(a) QRR, stored charge
(b) IRR, reverse recovery current

Note:
For General Analysis – use the Softness factor
For Abrupt Recovery – tRR =< 5µsec
For Soft Recovery – tRR => 5µsec

Given:
tRR = 1µsec
di
 30 A /  sec
dt

Find:
a. QRR = ?
b. IRR = ?

Solution:
a. Using EQN 12
2Q RR
t RR 
di dt
2
t RR di
QRR 
2 dt
( 1s )2
QRR  ( 30 A / s )
2
QRR  15 s / A  15 C

b. Using EQN 11
di
I RR  t RR
dt
I RR  1s( 30 A / s )
I RR  30 A
 Industrial Electronics –Module 1 16

Notes: