CHAPTER 3

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
AND LINK BUDGET
INTRODUCTION
Radio-frequency (RF) planning for networks such as cellular
telephone systems or wireless local area networks (LANs) is a
key part of network deployment.
Insufficient planning can result in overdesign and wasted
resources or under design and poor system performance.

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Prior to planning a network, the parameters controlling the
performance of each individual link must be understood.
The essential parameters are the received signal strength, the
noise that accompanies the received signal, and any additional
channel impairments beyond attenuation, such as multipath or
interference.
Note that:
 Example:
Amplification and attenuation
The simplified link budget equations
Rx Power (dBm) = Tx Power (dBm) + Gains (dB) − Losses (dB)
Gains is the sum of all gains
• Gain of the transmitter antenna
• Gain of the receiver antenna
• Gain of any PA (transmitter) or LNA (receiver low-noise
amplifier )
Losses is the sum of all losses
• Loss of any cabling and/or connectors on either side
• Loss of any passive components like duplexers/splitters on
either side
• Path Loss of the radio link
Example:
a 5 km link, with one access point and
one client radio. The access point is
connected to an antenna with 10 dBi
gain, with a transmitting power of 20
dBm and a receive sensitivity of -89
dBm.
The client is connected to an antenna
with 14 dBi gain, with a transmitting
power of 15 dBm and a receive
sensitivity of -82 dBm. The cables in
both systems are short, with a loss of
2dB at each side at the 2.4 GHz
frequency of operation.
Link budget: access point to Client link:
20 dBm (TX Power AP)
+ 10 dBi (Antenna Gain AP)
- 2 dB (Cable Losses AP)
+ 14 dBi (Antenna Gain Client)
- 2 dB (Cable Losses Client)
________________________________
40 dB Total Gain
-114 dB (free space loss @5 km)
_________________________________
-73 dBm (expected received signal level)
- (-82) dBm (sensitivity of Client)
__________________________________
9 dB (link margin)
 Link budget: Client to access point link:
15 dBm (TX Power Client)
+ 14 dBi (Antenna Gain Client)
- 2 dB (Cable Losses Client)
+ 10 dBi (Antenna Gain AP)
- 2 dB (Cable Losses AP)
_____________________________
35 dB Total Gain
-114 dB (free space loss @5 km)
_____________________________
-78 dBm (expected received signal level)
- (-89) dBm (sensitivity of AP)
_____________________________
11 dB (link margin)
Link planning
• The link budget is computed in decibels (𝑑𝐵), so that all of
the factors become terms to be added or subtracted.

• The link margin is obtained by comparing the expected

received signal strength to the receiver sensitivity or
threshold .

𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 − 𝐿𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ + 𝐺𝑟𝑥 − 𝑇𝐻𝑟𝑥

 • 𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 → is the effective isotropically radiated
Where: power in 𝑑𝐵𝑊 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝐵𝑚.
EIRP = TX Power - Coax Cable Loss + TX
antenna Gain
• 𝐿𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ → is the total path loss, including
miscellaneous losses, reflections, and fade margins
in 𝑑𝐵.

• 𝐺𝑟𝑥 → is the receive gain in dB.

• 𝑇𝐻𝑟𝑥 → is the receiver threshold or the minimum

received signal level that will provide reliable
operation (such as the desired bit error rate
performance) in 𝑑𝐵𝑊 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝐵𝑚.
Note that:
The available link margin depends upon many factors,
including:
• The type of modulation used,
• The transmitted power,
• The net antenna gain,
• any waveguide or cable loss between transmitter and antenna,
radome loss, and most significantly the path loss.
Path loss (Friis free-space loss equation)
• The path loss elements include free-space loss (if appropriate;
otherwise a median loss), atmospheric losses due to gaseous and water
vapor absorption, precipitation, fading loss due to multipath, and other
miscellaneous effects based on frequency and the environment.
2
𝜆
𝐿 = 𝐺𝑇 𝐺𝑅
4𝜋𝑑
• L is actually a gain (albeit less than unity) rather than a loss
The Friis free-space loss equation can be expressed in dB as:

𝐿𝑑𝐵 = −𝐺𝑇𝑑𝐵 − 𝐺𝑅𝑑𝐵 − 20 log 𝜆 + 20 log 𝑑 + 22

1
Where : 20 log = 22 ;
4𝜋
and a negative sign has been included so that the value of 𝐿 is,
𝐿𝑑𝐵 in fact, a loss.
In many applications, the antenna gains are excluded from the
path loss expression, in which case the free-space loss is

𝜆
𝐿𝐹𝑆𝐿 𝑑𝐵 = −20 log
4𝜋𝑑

𝐿𝐹𝑆𝐿 𝑑𝐵 = −20 log 𝜆 + 20 log 𝑑 + 22

In terms of frequency:
𝑐
𝐿𝐹𝑆𝐿 𝑑𝐵 = −20 log
4𝜋𝑑𝑓
Where:
𝐿𝐹𝑆𝐿 𝑑𝐵 = Free space path loss
d = distance from the transmitter to the receiver (meters)
λ = signal wavelength (meters)
f = signal frequency (Hz)
c = 3 × 108 speed of light (meters per second)
Note that:
We usually measure power in Watt (W) and milliWatt [mW] The
corresponding dB notations are dB and dBm
Example 2.2
Consider a 100-m link that operates in free space at 10 GHz.
Assume that the transmit power is 0.1W, and both transmit and
receive antennas have 5-dB gain. If the receiver threshold is -
85 dBm, what is the available link margin?
Solution:
The first step is to compute the 𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 of the transmitter:

𝑃𝑇 = 0.1 𝑤
𝑃𝑡 = 10 log 0.1𝑤 + 30 = −10 + 30 = 20 𝑑𝐵𝑚
Then, since
𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 = 𝑃𝑇 𝐺𝑇 𝑚𝑊
or, in dB
𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃𝑑𝐵 = 𝑃𝑇𝑑𝐵 +𝐺𝑇𝑑𝐵 = 25 𝑑𝐵𝑚
 𝑐 3 × 108
𝜆= = 9
= 0.03 𝑚
𝑓 10 × 10

And 𝑑 = 100𝑚 ; and the path loss is:

𝜆 0.03
𝑃𝐿 = −20 log = −20 log = − −92.4 = 92.4 𝑑𝐵
4𝜋𝑑 4 × 𝜋 × 100
The resulting link margin is:

𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃𝑑𝐵𝑚 − 𝐿𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑑𝐵 + 𝐺𝑅𝑋𝑑𝐵 − 𝑇𝐻𝑅𝑋𝑑𝐵𝑚

𝑀𝐿 = 25 − 92.4 + 5 − −85 = 22.6 𝑑𝐵

Example 2.3
Derive the Free Space Path loss Formula?

Assuming that the total transmit power at the source as 𝑃𝑡 ,

whose gain in a particular direction is 𝐺𝑡 , and then the radiated
power density at a given distance 𝑑 will be given by:
𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝜌 =
4𝜋𝑑 2
If a receive antenna is located at a distance 𝑑, whose gain is 𝐺𝑟 and the
effective area is 𝐴, where:
𝜆2
𝐴 = 𝐺𝑟
4𝜋
The received power 𝑃𝑟 at the terminal of the receive antenna will be
given by:
𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝜆2
𝑃𝑟 = 𝜌 × 𝐴 = × 𝐺𝑟
4𝜋𝑑 2 4𝜋

2
𝜆
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟
4𝜋𝑑
We find that the received signal attenuates as square of the distance. The
pathless formula is given by the ratio of the received power to the
transmit power, i.e.
𝑃𝑟
𝐿𝑝 =
𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟
Combining Equations. we get,
2
𝜆
𝐿𝑝 =
4𝜋𝑑
In decibel, the free space path loss formula (𝐿𝑝 ), can be obtained as:

2
𝜆
𝐿𝑝 𝑑𝐵 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔
4𝜋𝑑
Or
𝜆
𝐿𝑝 𝑑𝐵 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔
4𝜋𝑑
FADE MARGIN
The level of received power in excess of that required for a specified
minimum level of system performance is referred to as the fade margin.
So called, because it provides a margin of safety in the event of a
temporary attenuation or fading of the received signal power.
𝑃𝑅𝑋 = 𝑃𝑇𝑋 − 𝑙 𝑇𝑋 + 𝐺𝑇𝑋 − 𝐿𝑃𝐴𝑇𝐻 + 𝐺𝑅𝑋 − 𝐿𝑅𝑋
𝐹𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑀𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑅𝑋 − 𝑅𝑋 𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

Where:
PTX = The transmit power in dBm.
𝐿 𝑇𝑋 = The total system loss in 𝑑𝐵 at the transmitter.
𝐺𝑇𝑋 = The antenna gain in 𝑑𝐵𝑖 at the transmitter.
𝑙𝑃𝐴𝑇𝐻 = The total propagation losses in 𝑑𝐵 between transmit and receive antennas.
𝐺𝑅𝑋 = The antenna gain in 𝑑𝐵𝑖 at the receiver.
𝑙𝑅𝑋 = The total system loss in dB at the receiver.
𝑝𝑅𝑋 = The receive power in 𝑑𝐵𝑚.
Note that:
• The minimum required received power level used for the link budget
can be totally arbitrary—owing to the designer’s knowledge and
experience—but is most often tied to the receiver’s sensitivity.
• Simply put, the receiver’s sensitivity specifies the minimum RF input
power required to produce a useable output signal. Typical values for
receiver sensitivity fall within the range of – 90 𝑡𝑜 – 120 𝑑𝐵𝑚 .
CASE STUDY
 Radio and antenna
RF320 radio (both ends):
• RF output power = 5 watts (37 dBm);
• sensitivity = 0.25 μV (– 119 dBm) for 12 dB SINAD (signal-to-
noise and-distortion ratio);
• operating frequency = 170 MHz.
Omnidirectional antenna (both ends) is an FG1683:
𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 3 𝑑𝐵𝑑 (5.15 𝑑𝐵𝑖);
𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅 (voltage standing wave ratio) < 2: 1.
 Transmitter
• The elevation of the transmitting antenna is 30 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠.
• Transmission line at transmitter:
• 𝑝𝑛 31332 Surge Suppression Kit (𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 ≈ 0.5 𝑑𝐵);
• 100 ft. of Belden® 9914 coaxial cable (loss ≈ 1.7 dB @ 170
MHz);
• Miscellaneous connectors loss ≈ 0.5 𝑑𝐵.
 Receiver
• The elevation of the receiving antenna is 10 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠.
• Transmission line at receiver:
o 𝑝𝑛 31332 Surge Suppression Kit (𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 ≈ 0.5 𝑑𝐵);
o 50 ft. of Belden 9914 coaxial cable (𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 ≈
0.85 𝑑𝐵 @ 170 𝑀𝐻𝑧);
o miscellaneous connector loss ≈ 0.5 𝑑𝐵.
 General information
• The path of propagation is an unobstructed line of sight (LOS)
over a smooth earth.
• The distance between the transmitting and receiving antennas is 20
miles (32.2 km).
Solution
 1. Transmit Power
The RF320 RF output power is specified in units of watts.
The following equation is used to convert power in watts to power in
dBm:
𝑃𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑃𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 ) + 30

The RF output power of the example radio is 5 watts.

Therefore: 𝑃𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔 5 + 30 = 37 𝑑𝐵𝑚
 [Link] System Loss
System loss is the sum of the total insertion loss in the transmission line
plus any loss due to an impedance mismatch with the antenna.

Note that:
Each device in the transmission line that does not produce a signal gain (amplifier)
will exhibit some degree of signal loss; a decrease in the signal level at its output
relative to its input is known as insertion loss.
The datasheet for a given device will usually list the insertion loss, and, as with all
things “RF”, the value will be frequency dependent.
The most commonly quoted indicator of impedance mismatch on an antenna
datasheet is VSWR and is typically specified as some maximum value over
the operational bandwidth;
for our example, VSWR < 2:1.
The following equation is used to convert VSWR to mismatch loss (ML) in
dB (use only the left-hand value of the ratio).
2
𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅 − 1
𝑀𝐿 = −10 log 1 −
𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅 + 1

• Therefore,
• a VSWR of 2:1 equates to a mismatch loss of 0.511 db.
Based on the preceding information, we can now calculate the system loss for
both ends of the link.
𝐿 𝑇𝑋
= 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑘𝑖𝑡 −0.5 + 𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 −1.7 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 0.5
+ 𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ −0.511 ≈ −3.2 𝑑𝐵
And,
𝐿𝑅𝑋
= 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑘𝑖𝑡 −0.5 + 𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 −0.85 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 0.5
+ 𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ −0.511 ≈ −2.35 𝑑𝐵
 3. Antenna Gain
• By convention, antenna gain figures used in a link budget are
expressed in units of 𝑑𝐵𝑖; gain relative to a theoretical isotopic radiator.

• It is not uncommon for a manufacturer’s datasheet to express antenna

gain in units of 𝑑𝐵𝑑, gain relative to an actual dipole antenna.
Relative to an isotropic radiator, a standard half wave vertical dipole
antenna will exhibit an intrinsic gain of (2.15 𝑑𝐵) in the horizontal.
The following equation is used to convert gain in units of 𝑑𝐵𝑑 to units
of 𝑑𝐵𝑖:
𝑑𝐵𝑖 = 𝑑𝐵𝑑 + 2.15
The FG1683 antenna in the example has a specified gain of (3 𝑑𝐵𝑑).
Therefore, to calculate the gain in 𝑑𝐵𝑖 of the transmitting antenna and
the receiving antenna:

𝐺𝑇𝑋 = 𝐺𝑅𝑋 = 3 + 2.15 = 5.15 𝑑𝐵𝑖

 4. Path Loss
In most cases, path loss is the principal contributor to loss in the link
budget. It is the sum of free space loss plus additional losses induced by
the interaction of the EM (electromagnetic) wave front with the terrain
and/or obstructions along the path of propagation.
4.1:Line-of-Sight Path of Propagation
for a single antenna, the maximum path of propagation is limited by the
distance to the RF horizon. As illustrated in FIG, the RF horizon differs
from the optical horizon..
the distanced to the RF horizon will be somewhat (≈ 7%) greater than
the distance to the optical horizon.
For a standard atmosphere (standard refraction = k = 1.33) over a
smooth earth, the distance to the RF horizon is related to the height of
the antenna as follows:

𝑑𝐻𝑂𝑅 = 4.124 ℎ km
Where:

𝑑𝐻𝑂𝑅 = Distance in kilometers to the RF horizon.

ℎ = The antenna height in meters above a smooth earth

For ℎ in feet and 𝑑 in statute miles:

𝑑𝐻𝑂𝑅 = 1.414 ℎ mile

For an RF telemetry link, the maximum line-of-sight path distance is
equal to the sum of the RF horizon distance for both the transmitting
and receiving antennas:
𝐿𝑂𝑆𝑀𝐴𝑋 = 4.124 ℎ 𝑇𝑋 + 4.124 ℎ𝑅𝑋
Where:

• 𝐿𝑂𝑆𝑀𝐴𝑋 = the maximum line-of-sight path distance in kilometers

• ℎ 𝑇𝑋 = height of the transmitting antenna in meters above a smooth earth

• ℎ𝑅𝑋 = height of the receiving antenna in meters above a smooth earth

Therefore for our example:
𝐿𝑂𝑆𝑀𝐴𝑋 = 4.124 30 + 4.124 10
𝐿𝑂𝑆𝑀𝐴𝑋 = 35.6 𝑘𝑚
For a link to be considered as having a line-of-sight path of
propagation, the distance between the transmitting and receiving
antennas must be equal to or less than the maximum line-of-sight path
distance: 𝑑𝑃𝐴𝑇𝐻 ≤ 𝐿𝑂𝑆𝑀𝐴𝑋
 4.2: Free Space Propagation Model
As an EM wave propagates in free space, the power density per unit
area decreases in proportion to the frequency and the square of the
distance traveled. These facts give rise to the classic free space loss
equation:
𝐹𝑆𝐿𝑑𝐵 = 32.45 + 20 log 𝑑 + 20 log 𝑓
Where:
 𝐹𝑆𝐿𝑑𝐵 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐵
 𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑒𝑔𝑎ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧
Note:
For distance in statute miles:
𝐹𝑆𝐿𝑑𝐵 = 36.58 + 20 log 𝑑 + 20 log 𝑓
Therefore, for our example a distance of 32.2 km and an operating
frequency of 170 𝑀𝐻𝑧:
𝐹𝑆𝐿𝑑𝐵 = 32.45 + 20 log 32.2 + 20 log 170
𝐹𝑆𝐿𝑑𝐵 = 107.2 𝑑𝐵
Important:
While free space loss alone is often used in link budget calculations, it
is important to understand that in this context, the term “free space” is
meant literally; no atmosphere and no reflective surfaces or obstructions
of any type.
This does not represent a realistic environment for earth-based
telemetry links and, for many path scenarios, the use of free space loss
alone will not result in a realistic link budget.
4.3: 2-Ray Multipath Propagation Model
System design constraints may require that a link be
established over a path containing unavoidable manmade or
natural obstructions.
Many of these non-free-space elements in the physical
environment can cause the propagating wave front to be
absorbed, scattered, refracted, reflected, or diffracted.
• The net effect of these propagation mechanisms on the signal level
reaching the receiving antenna can be difficult to evaluate analytically
and requires a level of detailed information typically not available
without a precise survey of the intended path.

• For these reasons, a commercial software application using established

empirical propagation models linked to a GIS database is the
recommended tool for predicting losses for an obstructed line-of sight
path of propagation.
For even the most benign of LOS scenarios, the signal captured by the
receiving antenna is seldom the result of the direct path of propagation
alone. In all but the very shortest of path lengths, there will likely be an
indirect or reflected signal arriving at the receiving antenna coincident
with the direct signal.
• The effect of the ground reflected wave front on the received signal is
largely dependent on the distance between the transmitting and
receiving antennas, the relative height of the antennas, and the
reflective properties of the earth’s surface.
• The difference in phase is due to a combination of the increased time
required to travel the greater distance (𝑑”) and any phase shift induced
into the reflected wave front at the point of reflection.
For a horizontally polarized wave front, there will always be a 180°
phase shift induced at the point of reflection.
For a vertically polarized wave front, a phase shift in the reflected wave
front only occurs for an angle of incidence (𝜃𝑖 ) of less than 30°.
Note that:
The reflected wave front will interfere with the direct wave front either
constructively or destructively. Constructive interference occurs when
the wave fronts arrive more or less in phase (𝜃𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 < ±90°).
Note that:
• A (0°) phase shift with a small difference in amplitude can result in as
much as a 6 𝑑𝐵 gain in received signal strength relative to the direct
wave front alone.
Note that:
Conversely, destructive interference occurs when the wave fronts arrive
more or less out of phase (𝜃𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 > ±90°). with a phase difference of
(180°) and a small difference in amplitude, the wavefronts will cancel
out, resulting in a null in the received signal level
Important
It should be clear from FIGURE that the factors affecting path loss are
greatly dependent on the relative heights of the antennas and the path
distance.
Very Important
When the difference in antenna heights is large and the path distance is
less than a critical distance (𝑑𝑐), the direct and reflected wave fronts
will alternate between constructive and destructive interference for
successive values of d (1, 2, 3, and so forth).
However, the path loss will, on average, follow the square of-the-
distance behavior defined by the free space loss equation
Very Important
When the path distance is equal to or greater than the critical distance,
the relative antenna heights become very small compared to the path
distance, and the angle of incidence will approach 0°.

For this path geometry, the phase shift contributable to a difference in

path lengths becomes very small, and the phase shift induced in the
reflected wave approaches 180° for both vertical and horizontal
polarization.
Under these conditions, the power density per unit area will decrease in
proportion to the fourth-power of the distance, and the path loss can be
calculated using the following equation:
𝑃𝐿2 𝑟𝑎𝑦 = 120 − 20 log ℎ 𝑇𝑋 . ℎ𝑅𝑋 + 40 log 𝑑
Where:
𝑃𝐿2 𝑟𝑎𝑦 = 2 𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐵
The critical distance is calculated as follows:
4𝜋×ℎ𝑇𝑋 ×ℎ𝑅𝑋
𝑑𝑐 =
𝜆
Where:
• 𝑑𝑐 = critical distance in meters
• ℎ 𝑇𝑋 = height of the transmitting antenna in meters
• ℎ𝑅𝑋 = height of the receiving antenna in meters
• 𝜆 wavelength of the propagating EM wave;
• For our example: 𝜆 wavelength of the propagating EM wave; 1.76
meters @ 170 MH

Therefore for our example:

4𝜋 × 30 × 10
𝑑𝑐 = = 2.14
1.76
NOTE THAT:
• For 𝑑 < 𝑑𝑐 ∶ calculate path loss using the free space propagation
model .

• For 𝑑 ≥ 𝑑𝑐 : calculate path loss using the 2-ray propagation model

Because the distance between antennas is 32.2 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 , this
example requires the 2-ray propagation model.

Therefore for our example:

𝑃𝐿2 𝑟𝑎𝑦 = 120 − 20 log 30 × 10 + 40 log 32.2 = 130.8 𝑑𝐵

Remember :
𝐹𝑆𝐿𝑑𝐵 = 32.45 + 20 log 32.2 + 20 log 170
𝐹𝑆𝐿𝑑𝐵 = 107.2 𝑑𝐵
 5. Received Signal Level
Having derived all of the input parameters to the link budget, we can
now calculate the power level arriving at the receiver’s input.
𝑃𝑅𝑋 = 𝑃𝑇𝑋 − 𝑙 𝑇𝑋 + 𝐺𝑇𝑋 − 𝐿𝑃𝐴𝑇𝐻 + 𝐺𝑅𝑋 − 𝐿𝑅𝑋
Therefore for our example:
𝑃𝑅𝑋
= 37𝑑𝐵𝑚 − 3.2 𝑑𝐵 + 5.15 𝑑𝐵𝑖 − 130.8 𝑑𝐵 + 5.15 𝑑𝐵𝑖 − 2.35 𝑑𝐵
= −89 𝑑𝐵
 6. Fade Margin
By subtracting the receiver’s specified sensitivity from the calculated
received signal level, we can determine the extent to which transient
path losses or signal fading can be tolerated before system performance
is impacted.
Note that
• As has been noted, the receiver’s sensitivity specifies the minimum RF
input power required to produce a useable output signal.
• A point of consternation for the designer is that transceiver
manufacturers will often define and quantify “a useable output signal”
in differing and sometimes ambiguous ways.
Two common methods of specifying receiver
sensitivity are:
1. The minimum input signal level required to limit the number of
errors in the received digital data stream to a maximum Bit Error
Rate (BER).

A typical specification would be: – 103 𝑑𝐵𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 𝑥 10−4 𝐵𝐸𝑅 —

meaning, one bit error for every ten thousand bits received.
 2.
The minimum input signal level required to produce a minimum
SINAD ratio in the demodulated audio. SINAD is the ratio, in dB, of
(Signal + Noise + Distortion) to (Noise + Distortion) and is an
expression of audio quality for voice communications.
A typical specification would be: 0.28 μ𝑉 𝑓𝑜𝑟 12 𝑑𝐵 𝑆𝐼𝑁𝐴𝐷 . A
somewhat subjective industry standard specifies a SINAD ratio of
12 𝑑𝐵 as the minimum required for intelligible voice communications.
• The sensitivity specification for the RF320 series of radios states the
RF input level in units of microvolts (µV).
• For link budget calculations, it is convenient to convert units of
voltage to units of power.
• For a 50 Ω system (the standard for the telecommunications industry),
the following equation can be used to convert volts to power in dBm:
2
𝑉 ×10−6
𝑃𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 10 log + 30
50
Where:

• 𝑃𝑑𝐵𝑚 = power in dBm

• 𝑉 = 𝑟𝑚𝑠 voltage in microvolts

Therefore for our example:

Rx Sensitivity at 0.25 𝑢𝑉 𝑓𝑜𝑟 12 𝑑𝐵 𝑆𝐼𝑁𝐴𝐷
0.25 × 10−6 2
𝑃𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 10 log + 30 = −119 𝑑𝐵𝑚
50
We can now calculate the fade margin for the link.

𝐹𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑀𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑅𝑋 − 𝑅𝑋 𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝐹𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑀𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = −89 𝑑𝐵𝑚 − −119 𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 30 𝑑𝐵
Where 𝑃𝑅𝑋 was derived, Received Signal Level, and 𝑅𝑋 Sensitivity
was derived earlier in this section.
 SUMMARY
• A link budget provides a quick, simplistic assessment of a link’s
viability and should only be used as a design tool.
• The calculations herein provide only theoretical approximations
and do not account for all of the myriad, real-world variables that
can affect system performance.
• All link budgets should be verified via observed measurements
before committing to an installation. Analysis is no substitute for
empirical data.
• If a highly reliable, mission critical RF telemetry link is required, the
design goal should be for a minimum fade margin of 20 𝑡𝑜 30 𝑑𝐵.
• If the link budget calculations or on-site measurements indicate a fade
margin of less than 10 dB, one should exercise all possible options to
improve upon this figure
Some possible options are:
• Use an antenna with a higher gain specification on one or both ends of
the link. One should be cognizant of any FCC regulations that may put
limits on the maximum radiated power for given transmitter site
 Increase the antenna elevation at one or both ends of the link. If
path obstructions or multipath interference is suspected, even a
small increase (or decrease) of one-half wavelength could make a
significant difference in received signal level. Any increase in
system losses due to a longer transmission line are usually more
than offset by the decrease in path loss.
 Add a repeater site to the path. By far, the largest factor in a link
budget is path loss.
 ?

Questions