ECEP-T580 Renewable Energy Sources
Photovoltaic Systems
Dr. Kevin Scoles
Associate Professor Emeritus
Introduction
Photovoltaic Energy Conversion
Performance of Photovoltaic Systems
Photovoltaic Technology
The Silicon Solar Cell
Operation of a Solar Cell
Equivalent Circuit of a Solar Cell
Performance of the Solar Cell with Varying Irradiance and Cell
Temperature
The Solar Cell as a Current Source
Photovoltaic Modules
Performance of Photovoltaic Modules and Systems
Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Systems
The Technologies of Photovoltaic Cells*
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Solar Cell and p-n Junction
Cell consists of very thin n-
type layer on a p-type wafer
Add electrical connections to
top and bottom
Attach load and expose to
light
Fig. 5.10 (b)
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Operation of a Solar Cell
Modify the diode equation to
include changes induced by light
Electrons created by absorbed
photons in or near the p-n junction
are swept from p to n by the built
in electric eld
Picked up by conducting ngers
on top of cell, produce a current
through load
Fig. 5.12
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Operation of a Solar Cell (2)
Illumination drives the diode characteristic curve
downward
Displacement is proportional to number of
photons absorbed (irradiance G)
Power is generated in the lower right quadrant
V > 0, I < 0, P < 0
Negative power indicates device is
supplying power rather than consuming it
Fig. 5.13
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V-I Characteristic of a Solar Cell
The convention when dealing with solar
cells is to re ect the IV curve about the x-
axis and into the rst quadrant
Short-circuit current is proportional to G
VOC depends on e- eld in junction region,
insensitive to G. Equal to forward voltage
drop of diode, or about 0.6 V at room
temperature
Fig. 5.14
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V-I Characteristic of a Solar Cell (2)
Grey area is rectangle of largest area that
ts under curve. Called the maximum
power rectangle.
De nes maximum power point (mpp),
current at maximum power point, Impp, and
voltage at maximum power point Vmpp
Fig. 5.14
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Solar Cell Equation
An irradiance-related term and a diode-
related term
Ip is the photocurrent that is directly
I = IP − I0 [e − 1]
V
proportional to solar irradiance (G) VT
(5.2)
Curve moves up as G increases
Second term give the diode shape
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Equivalent Circuit of a Solar Cell
I = IP − I0 [e − 1]
V
VT
(5.2)
Fig. 5.15
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Equivalent Circuit of a Solar Cell (2)
Short output
I - IP, proportional to G
c-Si cells output 300-400 A/m2
150 mm (6”) square cell
output ISC of 6.75-9 A
Open-circuit output
Output is forward voltage
drop across diode, ~0.6 V
Fig. 5.15
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Output Power
Opera ng
Points
P=VxI
I = 0 when open-circuit, so P = 0
V = 0 when short-circuit, so P = 0
Consider resistor load line on V-I
V = I R, I = 1/R x V
Max power delivered when load line
passes through max power point, A
Fig. 5.16
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Fill Factor
Vmpp Impp Pmpp
FF = =
VOC ISC VOC ISC
Fig. 5.16
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Extended Equivalent Circuit
Real cells have losses
RS represents resistance of bulk
silicon, metal contacts, and
resistance of contact-Si connections
RSH represents leakage of current
across the p–n junction around the
edge of the cell and the effect of
defects and impurities in the junction
region.
Fig. 5.17
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Solar Cell Equation for Extended Equivalent Circuit
[ ]
q(V + RS I) V + RS I
I = IP − I0 e nkT −1 − (5.4)
RSH
where
n is the ideality factor (between 1 and 2)
RS is the series resistance in Ω
RSH is the shunt resistance in Ω.
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Performance with Varying Irradiance
Under varying irradiance at constant
temp,
ISC increases linearly with
irradiance
Minor shifts in VOC
Pmpp shifts to right as irradiance
increases
Fig. 5.18
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Performance with Varying Cell Temperature
Deviations from Standard Test Conditions (STC)
dISC STC ∘
= ISC × 0.0006 [A/ C]
dT
dVOC STC
= VOC × −0.003 [V/∘ C]
dT
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Why the Temperature Sensitivity?
Band gap shrinks as temperature increases
Photon energy needed to promote electron across band gap decreases (photon
wavelength increases), More solar photons now qualify, so electron population in
conduction band increases, and current increases.
Electric eld across junction decreases as gap decreases. Open-circuit voltage is
related to this eld, so its value drops.
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Performance with Varying Cell Temperature (2)
Under rising temperature at
constant irradiance,
Minor increase in ISC
VOC shifts to lower values
Max power rectangle shrinks
Pmpp moves to left and to lower
value
Conclusion
Like cells to be cold
Fig. 5.19
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Example 5.4 - Performance of a Solar Cell at Increased Temperature
A crystalline silicon PV cell has an open-circuit voltage of 0.6 V and a short-circuit current
of 2 A at standard test conditions. What is the maximum output power at:
A. standard test conditions
B. cell temperature of 55 °C (131 °F)?
Assume a ll factor of 0.75.
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Example 5.4 - Solution
A. Using Equation 5.3, and considering standard test conditions, we have
Vmpp Impp Pmpp
FF = = (5.3)
VOC ISC VOC ISC
Pmpp = FF × VOC × ISC = 0.75 × 0.6 V × 2 A = 0.9 W
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Example 5.4 - Solution (2)
B. At 55 °C and assuming a constant ll factor, we have
dISC STC 0.0006
= ISC × ∘
dT C
( C )
STC 0.0006
ΔISC = ISC × ∘ ΔT
STC 0.0006
ISC = ISC × (1 + ∘ × ΔT)
C
0.0006 ∘
ISC = 2 A × (1 + ∘ × 30 C) = 2.036 A
C
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Example 5.4 - Solution (3)
STC 0.003
VOC = VOC × (1 − ∘ × ΔT)
C
0.003
VOC = 0.6 V × (1 − ∘ × 30∘ C) = 0.546 V
C
Pmpp = FF × VOC × ISC = 0.75 × 2.036 A × 0.546 V = 0.834 W
On the rooftop, power dropped by more than 7%
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Example 5.4 - Solution (4)
But it gets worse …
FF has temp coef cient of ~ -0.15% per °C
0.0015 ∘
Pmpp = 0.75 × (1 − ∘ × 30 C) × 2.036 A × 0.546 V = 0.796 W
C
The power loss is now over 11%
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Summary of Effect of Temperature on Power
Power vs voltage curves generated
by taking point by point products of
current and voltage
Apex of curve is Pmpp
As temperature rises, power curve
moves left (lower VOC) and down
(lower Pmpp)
Fig. 5.20
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The Solar Cell as a Current Source
Voltage source attempts to keep output voltage constant
Pass whatever current necessary to hold that voltage
Car battery 12 V and normally ~50 amps. If shorted it may pass 1000-2000 amps.
Current source attempts to keep output current constant
If shorted, max current is ISC, set by G
If powering a load and terminal voltage reaches about 0.6 V, diode begins to
conduct, limiting the voltage to VOC
Cell very well behaved compared to car battery
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Summary
Photovoltaic Energy Conversion
Performance of Photovoltaic Systems
Photovoltaic Technology
The Silicon Solar Cell
Operation of a Solar Cell
Equivalent Circuit of a Solar Cell
Performance of the Solar Cell with Varying Irradiance and Cell
Temperature
The Solar Cell as a Current Source
Photovoltaic Modules
Performance of Photovoltaic Modules and Systems
Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Systems
The Technologies of Photovoltaic Cells*
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