ECEP-T580 Renewable Energy Sources

The Solar Resource

Dr. Kevin Scoles

Associate Professor Emeritus
Introduction
The Solar Resource
Sun-Earth Geometry
Orientation of Solar Panels
Solar Spectrum and Air Mass
Wave-Particle Duality of Light

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 Some De nitions
Direct Radiation
Straight path from sun to absorber.
Absorber may be tilted or horizontal
Diffuse Radiation
Light scattered on path to absorber by
air molecules, clouds, dust, pollutants
Re ected Radiation
Light scattered by surfaces on path to
absorber
Fig. 4.1
ArcGIS Desktop, h ps://[Link]/en/arcmap/latest/tools/spa al-analyst-toolbox/modeling-solar-radia [Link]

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Some De nitions (2)
Global Radiation
The total solar radiation falling on a
horizontal surface
Direct + Diffuse + Re ected
GHI - Global Horizontal Irradiance (W/m2)

ArcGIS Desktop, h ps://[Link]/en/arcmap/latest/tools/spa al-analyst-toolbox/modeling-solar-radia [Link]

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Global Solar Irradiance on a Horizontal Surface
Site in Cardiff, Wales (Lat = 51.5° N)
Dec - lowest irradiance, shortest day
June - highest irradiance, longest day
Equinox - intermediate irradiance,
equal day and night

Fig. 4.3

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Average Direct and Diffuse Daily Insolation on an Inclined Surface
Site in Cardiff, Wales (Lat = 51.5° N)
Tilt angle of 38°
Large diffuse content
~50/50 split
Only direct light used in
concentrating solar systems

Fig. 4.4

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Sun-Earth Geometry
Earth orbit around sun is
elliptical
Incline of earth’s axis to plane
of rotation (ecliptic) is 23.45°
On the equinoxes, the earth’s
axis is perpendicular to a line
between the earth and sun, and
day and night are of equal
length
following Duoduoduo's advice, vector image: Gothika., CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons

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Motion of the Earth Around the Sun
Declina on
Event Date
Angle δ

Spring equinox 21 March 0°

Summer
21 June +23.5°
solstice
Autumn
23 September 0°
equinox

Winter solstice 22 December -23.5°

Fig. 4.5

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Apparent motion of the sun at a latitude of 35°
Motion of sun at critical times as
seen by observer at 35° latitude
facing south
Dots represent position of sun 3
hours before and after solar noon
Solar noon does not necessarily
occur a noon watch time

Fig. 4.6

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Apparent motion of the sun at a latitude of 35° (2)
Solar noon altitude angle at equinox
equal to 90° - latitude = 55°
Noon altitude of solstice differ from
equinox by the declination angle
Summer solstice sunrise and sunset
behind observer, winter well in front
Summer solstice solar path much
longer than winter solstice

Fig. 4.6

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 De nition of Altitude and Azimuth Angles
Altitude
Angle between plane and line
to sun, 0 ≤ β ≤ 90°
Azimuth
Angle between South and
projection of line to sun on
plane, 0 ≤ Z ≤ 360°, positive
toward East

Fig. 4.7

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Variation of angle of declination, δ, through the year (earth-centred view)

Fig. 4.8

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Declination Angle
Angle between ecliptic and sun

( 365 )
n is the day of the year (counting from 1 ∘
360
∘
January as day 1) δ = 23.45 sin (n + 284)

−23.45∘ ≤ δ ≤ + 23.45∘

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Altitude Angle at Solar Noon
L - latitude angle ( xed for site)
δ - declination angle ( xed for
day)

∘
βnoon = (90 − L) + δ

Fig. 4.9

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Example 4.1 – Altitude of the Sun at Solar Noon (Modi ed)

The latitude and longitude of Philadelphia International Airport (PHL) are:

Latitude: 39.8729° N
Longitude: 75.2437° W
Calculate the altitude of the sun at solar noon at latitude 39.9° N on April 14.

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Solution
Using [Link] April 14 is the 104th day of
the year
The declination angle δ is (from equ. 4.1)

( 365 )
∘
∘ 360 ∘
δ = 23.45 sin (104 + 284) = 9.0
From equ. 4.2,
∘
βnoon = 90 − L + δ
∘ ∘ ∘ ∘
βnoon = 90 − 39.9 + 9.0 = 59.1

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Hour Angle
From earth-centric view, sun rotates around earth in 24 hours
360°/24 h =15°/h
Time zones are separated by 15° of longitude
Hour angle - H - number of degrees earth must rotate before solar noon
Positive toward the east
t
H= × 360∘
24
where t is the number of hours before solar noon

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Finding the Altitude and Azimuth Angles

sinβ = cosδcosHcosL + sinδsinL

cosδsinH
sinZ =
where cosβ
β is the altitude angle
Z is the azimuth
δ is the declination
H is the hour angle
L is the latitude

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Example 4.2 – Location of the Sun (Modi ed)
(a) Calculate the position of the sun two hours before solar noon at Philadelphia
International Airport (latitude 39.9°) on May 15.
(b) Calculate how many hours of daylight there are on May 15.

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 Solution
Using [Link] May 15 is the 135th day of the
year
Describe the sun’s position with its altitude and azimuth angles
To nd these angles, we’re going to need to know
δ the declination
H the hour angle
L the latitude (this one we know)

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Solution (2)
The declination angle δ is

( 365 )
∘
360
( 135 + 284) = 18.8
∘ ∘
δ = 23.45 sin

The hour angle H is

2 ∘ ∘
H= × 360 = 30
24

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Solution (3)
The altitude angle is
sinβ = cosδcosHcosL + sinδsinL
∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘
sinβ = cos18.8 cos30 cos39.9 + sin18.8 sin39.9 = 0.836
β = 56.7∘
The azimuth angle is
cosδsinH cos18.8∘ sin30∘
sinZ = = = 0.862
cosβ cos56.7∘
∘
Z = 59.6

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 Sun Path Diagrams for Example 4.2
70 Philadelphia
Cardi
55.5°, 59.0° 10 AM Solar Time
10 AM Solar Time
52.5
Altitude Angle (deg)

46.9°, 50.0°

35

Data Source: Al tude and Azimuth of

the Sun or Moon During One Day,
17.5
h ps://[Link]/data/AltAz

0
-180 -135 -90 -45 0 45 90 135 180
Azimuth Angle East of South (deg)

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Solution (4)
At dawn and dusk, β = 0
sinβ = cosδcosHcosL + sinδsinL = 0
−sinδsinL ∘ ∘
cosH = = − tanδ × tanL = − tan18.8 × tan39.9 = − 0.285
cosδcosL
∘
H = 106.5
t ∘ 24 h × H 24 h × 106.5 ∘
H= × 360 t= = = 7.1 h
24 h 360∘ 360∘
There will be 14.2 hours of daylight on May 15 at
Philadelphia Interna onal Airport

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ECEP-T580 Renewable Energy Sources
The Solar Resource

Dr. Kevin Scoles

Associate Professor Emeritus
Orientation of Solar Panels
Azimuth and tilt (elevation) of solar panels
critical to capture maximum annual energy
Most panels mounted with xed orientation
Some mounted to 1-axis or 2-axis trackers
Additional energy collection
Additional cost

"solar panels" by spanginator licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0.

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 Solar Panels on Flat Roofs
Panels can be used with zero tilt
More common to be mounted with a small
angle (10 to 15%) to improve energy
collection, keep panels clean

8 Cabot Rd. roof solar panels, [Link] [Link]/photos/cummingsproperties/7538703720, CC BY 2.0

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Tilt Angle of a Solar Module

Fig. 4.10

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Tilt Angle of a Solar Module (2) Yearly Output of 10 kWdc Array in
19104 Zip Code
You can show with tool like PVWatts 13600
Yearly Energy (kWh)

from NREL ([Link]) that 99% Line

Yearly Energy Output (kWh)

peak annual energy is a weak 13525

function of tilt angle

For array in Philly peak energy is at 13450

about 35.25°
13375
About 90% of latitude
Tilt can change ±9° and lose less than 13300
1% of max energy 25 27.5 30 32.5 35 37.5 40 42.5 45
Tilt Angle (deg)

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 Best Azimuth Alignment for Solar Panels

Philadelphia Cardi
Best to aim the panel ±5° from due south in
10 AM Solar Time 10 AM Solar Time northern hemisphere
70
±5% from due north in southern hemisphere
Altitude Angle (deg)

52.5
You can show that angles ±20° from due south
35 still collect signi cant energy

17.5

0
-180 -135 -90 -45 0 45 90 135 180
Azimuth Angle East of South (deg)

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The Spectrum of Sunlight
PV cells have limits on wavelengths
needed to convert light to energy
Curve representative of almost 6000
K blackbody at edge of atmosphere
The longer path the through
atmosphere, the more the spectrum
changes
Absorption by O2, O3, H20

Fig. 4.11

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Air Mass Concept

Fig 4.12
Example 4.3 Air Mass at Solar Noon (Modi ed)
What is the zenith angle and hence the air mass at solar noon at latitude 39.9° on April
14?
From Example 4.1 (Modi ed) the altitude angle is

βnoon = 59.1∘

At solar noon the zenith angle θ is 90°– βnoon = 30.9°

1
air mass at solar noon = = 1.2
cos 30.9∘

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Wave–Particle Duality of Light
Sunlight considered as electromagnetic waves composed of photons of different energies
traveling at the same speed
Light as photons very important in understanding use of semiconductors in solar cells
Radiation wavelength inversely proportional to photon energy
hc c - velocity of light, 2.998 x 108 m/s
λ= [m]
E h - Planck’s constant, 6.626 x 10-34 Js

Frequency related to wavelength

c
ν= [Hz]
λ

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Semiconductors as Solar Cells
Band gap diagram for crystalline silicon solar
cell
Electron has to bridge up from valence to
conduction band to be available for current
Band 1.11 eV or 1.78 x 10-19 J needed to bridge
Gap gap

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Example 4.4 – Wavelength of Light to Operate a Silicon Solar Cell
Mono-crystalline silicon solar cells require photons with energy of 1.11 eV to excite
electrons to cross the bandgap of the p–n junction. What is the maximum wavelength and
minimum frequency of the radiation for electricity to ow?

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Solution
1 eV = 1.602 x 10-19 J
Energy of a photon needed to excite an electron to cross the band gap
−19 J
E = 1.11 eV × 1.602 × 10 = 1.78 × 10−19 J
eV
The wavelength must be less than
−34 8m
hc 6.626 × 10 Js × 2.998 ×10 s
−6
λ≤ = = 1.116 × 10 m = 1.116 μm
E 1.78 × 10−19 J
The frequency must be greater than
8m
c 2.998 × 10 s
14
υ≥ = = 2.69 × 10 Hz = 2.69 THz
λ 1.116 × 10−6 m

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Summary of Angles to Know
Altitude (α) Hour (H)
Measured up from plane to line to sun Angle between the observer’s meridian
Azimuth (Z) and the meridian containing the sun.
15° per hour.
Measured from south to projection of
line to sun on the plane. Positive as you Latitude (L)
go east. Angle above equator (positive)
Declination (δ) Tilt (?)
Angle between earth’s axis and orbital Angle between horizontal plane and
plane (ecliptic) solar panel

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Summary
The Solar Resource
Sun-Earth Geometry
Orientation of Solar Panels
Solar Spectrum and Air Mass
Wave-Particle Duality of Light

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