FLUID MECHANICS 2

(19WSB802)
Summer 2020 (1b) 2 + 1 Hours

This is a (1b) remote assessment examination, meaning you have a total of 2 hours plus 1
additional hour to complete and submit this paper. The additional hour is for downloading the paper
and uploading your answers when you have finished. If you have extra time or rest breaks as part of
a Reasonable Adjustment, you will have further additional time as indicated on your exam timetable.

Answer ALL FOUR questions. Questions carry the marks shown.

You may handwrite and/or word process your answers, as you see fit

1. The typical setup of a blow-down wind tunnel with its end opens to the
atmospheric condition (𝑝𝑝0 = 1 × 105 Pa) is shown in Fig. 1-1 (page 2). A
centrifugal blower, together with a control valve (minor loss coefficient
𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 1) and 1 m long (𝐿𝐿1 ), 10 cm (𝐷𝐷1 ) in diameter pipe, are used to
charge the isolation reservoir with dry airs (assumed to be an ideal gas:
gas constant 𝑅𝑅 = 287 J kg −1 K −1; specific heat capacity ratio 𝑘𝑘 = 1.4) to
targeted pressures. The dry air will then flow downstream through a
rounded inlet (𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 0.1), a pressure regulator (𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 1) and a 1 m long
(𝐿𝐿3 ), 40 cm (𝐷𝐷3 ) in diameter stainless steel pipe before being
accelerated isentropically (i.e. negligible frictional loss) through a
nozzle. The accelerated air will then flow through a 3 m long (𝐿𝐿4 ), 10 cm
(𝐷𝐷4 ) in diameter pipe network consisting of a flow-straightener (𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 1),
a turbulence-reducer (𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 1), a Venturi meter (negligible minor loss,
throat area is 9 cm in diameter (𝐷𝐷5 )), and finally a diffuser (assumed to
be isentropic). All pipes are made of stainless steel (roughness 𝜀𝜀 =
0.001 mm). Please keep 3 significant digits throughout your calculations.

a) Find the required isolation reservoir pressure (𝑝𝑝2 ) when the

average wind speed (𝑢𝑢4 ) in the test section is 80 m s −1. Assume
the air flow is incompressible, and its density (𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ) is 1.6 kg m−3
and viscosity is 1.8 × 10−5 Pa s. NB - The critical Reynolds
number (𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑐𝑐 ) can be taken as 4000, beyond which, the flow is
turbulent. [10 marks]

b) What is the required power input for the centrifugal blower

(𝑊𝑊̇𝑏𝑏−𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) if its efficiency (𝜂𝜂𝑏𝑏 ) is 90%? [4 marks]

c) If the power of the centrifugal pump and the pressure regulator

are adjusted so that the pressure difference between the blower
exit (𝑝𝑝1 at location 1) and the isolation reservoir is increased, how
to calculate the average air speed through the pipe between the
blower and the isolation reservoir? Please include the key
equations and explain the methodology. [6 marks]

Page 1 of 7 /continued
 d) If the air temperature in the test section is 20 °C and the air flow
can be considered as incompressible flow when the local Mach
number is less than 0.3, what is the maximum flow velocity in the
test section so that the flow can be considered as an
incompressible flow? [2 marks]

Now consider the flow downstream of the pressure regulator to be

an isentropic compressible flow and its stagnation pressure (𝑝𝑝03 ) is
250 kPa and the stagnation temperature (𝑇𝑇03 ) is 30 °C.

e) Will it be feasible to reach the sonic flow condition in the test

section (position 4)? Explain why. [2 marks]

f) What will be the maximum mass flow rate (𝑚𝑚̇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ) through the
test section? What will be the Mach number (𝑀𝑀5 ), the velocity
(𝑢𝑢5 ), the static pressure (𝑝𝑝5 ) and the static temperature (𝑇𝑇5 ) at the
throat of the Venturi meter? [8 marks]

g) If the air contained a certain amount of water moisture, is it

accurate to use the isentropic flow model in part g)? If not, why? [2 marks]

h) At the maximum mass flow rate condition, find the Mach number
in the test section (𝑀𝑀4 ) using Fig. 1-2 (page 3) which shows the
correlation between the local Mach number and the ratio of the
area at the throat (𝐴𝐴5 ) and any other location. Please also find
the corresponding average wind speed (𝑢𝑢4 ), the static
temperature (𝑇𝑇4 ) and the static pressure (𝑝𝑝4 ) in the test section. [6 marks]

2
L1 = 1 m, D1 = 10 cm 1

Sharp exit Centrifugal blower

?
KLE = 1
Isolation reservoir Control valve KLV = 1
3 Flow straightener
P2 KLS = 1 5
Test section

Rounded inlet Diffuser

KLI = 0.1 Venturi
Pressure regulator nozzle
Turbulence
KLR = 1 reducer KLT = 1 4

L3 = 1 m, D3 = 40 cm L4 = 3 m, D4 = 10 cm

Fig. 1-1 Schematic setup of a blow-down wind tunnel.

Page 2 of 7 /continued
Useful correlations and graph:

1 6.9 𝜀𝜀/𝐷𝐷 1.11

Frictional factor (𝑓𝑓) - = −1.8 log � 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + � 3.7 � � for turbulent flow
�𝑓𝑓

𝑘𝑘
𝑇𝑇0 𝑘𝑘−1 2 𝑝𝑝0 𝑘𝑘−1 2
Isentropic flow:
𝑇𝑇
=1+�
2
�M ; 𝑝𝑝
= �1 + �
2
�M � 𝑘𝑘−1

Fig. 1-2 Mach number at different area ratios

Page 3 of 7 /continued
2. A drone is used to deliver some equipment underwater (see Fig. 2a) at
a depth 𝐻𝐻 = − 60 m (density and viscosity of water 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 = 103 kg m−3 ,
𝜇𝜇 = 10−3 Pa s). The body of the drone can be considered as an
axisymmetric ellipsoid of semi-major axis 𝑎𝑎 = 1 m and semi-minor half-
axis 𝑏𝑏 = 0.5 m (cross-sections are 𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 𝜋𝜋 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 and 𝐴𝐴𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 𝜋𝜋 𝑏𝑏 2 , and
volume is 𝑉𝑉 = (4/3) 𝜋𝜋 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 2 ). The drone is equipped with 2 fixed
horizontal winglets on the rear and two adjustable/orientable winglets on
the front. The winglets can be considered as flat rectangular plates of
area 𝐴𝐴𝑤𝑤 = 𝑙𝑙 × 𝐿𝐿 = 0.2 m × 0.4 m and zero thickness. The axis of
rotation of the front winglets is along the 𝑦𝑦-direction, and located in the
𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥-plane, at a distance 𝐷𝐷 = 0.5 m from the centroid of the ellipsoid,
which is also considered as the pressure centre. The drag coefficients
of the ellipsoidal body in the 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑧𝑧 directions are 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷,𝑥𝑥 = 0.1 and
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷,𝑧𝑧 = 0.2. The drone is considered as a 3D non-slender object so that,
in each configuration, the frontal (not lengthwise) cross-section shall be
considered in the expression of the drag force.

Phase 1 (free fall) – In a first phase, the drone has a density 𝜌𝜌𝑑𝑑 greater
than the density of the water (𝜌𝜌𝑑𝑑 = 1.1 × 103 kg m−3 ) and the centre of
mass is located at the centre of pressure. The drone is launched from the
surface in a horizontal position with its thruster turned off and winglets
at zero pitch angle (𝛼𝛼 = 0∘ ). The drone falls under the effect of gravity
(𝑔𝑔 = 9.81 m s−2 ) as shown in Fig. 2b (page 5). NB – Assume the drone
immediately reaches its terminal velocity 𝑈𝑈𝑡𝑡 (aligned with the 𝑧𝑧-axis) and
keeps the same position during the entire way down (free fall along the 𝑧𝑧-
direction).

a) Calculate the terminal velocity of the drone by taking into account

(i) the drag of the ellipsoidal body (ii) the drag of the rectangular
plates (which in this case are oriented perpendicular to the
relative flow). NB – The drag coefficient of a rectangular plate
(winglet) perpendicular to the flow is 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷,𝑤𝑤 = 1.2. [10 marks]

b) Based on the value of the Reynolds number (choose 𝑏𝑏 as the

typical length), is the regime turbulent or laminar? NB – The
critical Reynolds number is 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑐𝑐 = 5 × 105 . [5 marks]

Phase 2 (before equipment delivery) – After a time 𝑡𝑡 = 35 s (use this

time to check your answer to question (a)), the drone has reached the
depth 𝐻𝐻 and some air is quickly released inside the body to reduce the
vertical velocity to zero and make the body neutrally buoyant. The
thruster is turned on and the drone quickly reaches its horizontal
cruising speed 𝑈𝑈𝑐𝑐 along the 𝑥𝑥-direction Fig. 2c (page 5). During this
phase, the centre of mass of the drone is still located at the centre of
pressure.

Page 4 of 7 /continued
 c) Knowing that the thrust �𝑻𝑻⃗ = 𝑇𝑇 𝒆𝒆
�⃗𝒙𝒙 has an amplitude of 𝑇𝑇 = 500 N,
show that the drone has a steady cruising speed 𝑈𝑈𝑐𝑐 = 3.57 m s −1
(in this question, consider the drag of the body only and neglect
the drag due to the winglets, as they are parallel/aligned with
the direction of motion). Based on the value of the Reynolds
number (choose 𝑎𝑎 as the typical length), specify if the regime is
laminar or turbulent. [10 marks]

Phase 3 (after equipment delivery) – After the equipment has been

delivered, some additional air is released internally so that the drone is
still neutrally buoyant. However, the centre of mass of the drone is shifted
from the centroid (pressure centre) by a distance 𝑑𝑑 = 0.1 m towards the
front, as shown in Fig. 2d (page 5).

d) Considering the same thrust force and neglecting again the drag
force of the winglets (but not their lift force), calculate the pitch
angle 𝛼𝛼 of the front winglets needed to maintain the drone in a
horizontal position, given that the lift coefficient of the winglet is
𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 = 2𝜋𝜋 × 𝛼𝛼. NB1 – Since the drag force of the winglets is
neglected, the speed of the drone is the same as in question (c).
NB2 – Be aware that now, the weight 𝑾𝑾 ����⃗ and the buoyancy force
�𝑭𝑭⃗𝐵𝐵 = 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔 𝒆𝒆
�⃗𝒛𝒛 do not act at the same location. [15 marks]

𝑧𝑧 𝐴𝐴𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
thruster �𝑭𝑭⃗𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
+ �𝑭𝑭⃗𝐷𝐷
(a) 𝐷𝐷 (b)
𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦
thruster
𝑏𝑏 off
𝐿𝐿
𝛼𝛼 𝐷𝐷 𝐷𝐷
𝑏𝑏 𝑙𝑙
𝑎𝑎
𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
��⃗ = −𝑔𝑔 𝒆𝒆
𝒈𝒈 �⃗𝑧𝑧 ��⃗ ����⃗ + �𝑭𝑭⃗𝑩𝑩
𝑩𝑩 = 𝑾𝑾

𝛼𝛼 𝑧𝑧

𝑥𝑥
(d)
(c) thruster 𝐷𝐷 − 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 �𝑭𝑭⃗𝐵𝐵 thruster
�𝑭𝑭⃗𝐷𝐷 on �𝑭𝑭⃗𝐿𝐿 on
�𝑻𝑻⃗
�⃗
𝑻𝑻 𝛼𝛼
�𝑭𝑭⃗𝐷𝐷
����⃗
𝑾𝑾

Fig. 2 Geometry and force diagram of the drone in different phases

Page 5 of 7 /continued
3. Consider the incompressible laminar flow across a flat plate of length 𝐿𝐿,
shown in Fig. 3. The fluid density is 𝜌𝜌 and its kinematic viscosity is 𝜈𝜈.
The upstream flow has a uniform velocity profile 𝑢𝑢 �⃗𝒙𝒙 . Please derive
�⃗ = 𝑈𝑈𝒆𝒆
the following scaling law for the drag coefficient (𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 ):

1
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 ∝ .
�𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿

Please specify all the assumptions and boundary conditions. [10 Marks]

�⃗𝑦𝑦
𝒆𝒆
�⃗𝑥𝑥
𝒆𝒆

𝑈𝑈
𝛿𝛿(𝑥𝑥2 )
𝛿𝛿(𝑥𝑥1 )
𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 (𝑥𝑥1 ) 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 (𝑥𝑥1 )

𝑥𝑥 = 0 𝐿𝐿

Fig. 3 Flow across a flat plate

4. The drag coefficients (𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 ) on a sphere and a thin flat plate in a uniform
incompressible flow at different Reynolds numbers (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅) are shown in
Fig. 4 (page 7). Please describe the two different origins of the drag
force in the external flow. Please also specify the characteristic length
used to define 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 in these two cases and describe the dominant origin
of the drag force when 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ≪ 1, 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ≅ 104 , and 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ≅ 106 . Finally, explain
what causes the transition highlighted by the green arrow and why it
leads to a significant reduction in the drag coefficient for a sphere but a
noticeable increase in the drag coefficient for a thin flat plate. [10 marks]

Page 6 of 7 /continued
𝑈𝑈
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷

𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 =
𝜈𝜈
Fig. 4 Drag coefficient on a sphere and a thin flat plate in a uniform flow

H. Zhao
F. Nadal

Page 7 of 7