Sensors & Actuators: A.

Physical 389 (2025) 116531

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Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical

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Fabrication of flexible MoS2 sensors for high-performance detection of

ethanol vapor at room temperature
Philips C. Tagbo a,b,* , Mohamed Mokhtar Mohamed a,c , Mohamad M. Ayad a,d ,
Ahmed Abd El-Moniem a,b,*
a
Basic and Applied Science Institute, Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology, New Borg El-Arab 21934, Egypt
b
Graphene Center of Excellence, Energy, and Electronics Applications, Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology, New Borg El-Arab 21934, Egypt
c
Faculty of Science, Chemistry Department, Benha University, Benha, Egypt
d
Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Tanta University, Tanta 31527, Egypt

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) possesses desirable electrical, mechanical, and physicochemical properties,
2H molybdenum disulfide making it an excellent candidate for developing flexible and high-performance resistive gas sensors that operate
Gas sensors at room temperature. However, MoS2 exhibits limited response to carbon-containing gases, such as volatile
Volatile organic compounds
organic compounds (VOCs), mainly due to its predominantly inert basal plane and the limited accessibility of
Inkjet printing
Defect engineering
active edge sites within its nanosheets. In this context, we propose a facile and effective strategy incorporating
Ethanol detection defect engineering and inkjet printing for fabricating flexible and high-performance gas sensors based on MoS2
Sulfur vacancies for room-temperature detection of ethanol vapors. Firstly, a defect-rich 2H-MoS2 was synthesized via low-
temperature annealing of hydrothermally synthesized ammonium-intercalated 1T-MoS2 nanosheets. It was
observed that the introduction of defects induces hierarchical porosity with high-binding energy active sites,
facilitating optimal interactions of the sensor’s surface with ethanol molecules and yielding a response of 177 %
to 70 ppm of ethanol, which is approximately four times greater than that of the defect-free sample. Furthermore,
inkjet printing in device fabrication significantly enhanced the gas-sensing performance of the sensor, achieving
a response significantly higher than its drop-cast counterpart. The printed sensor recorded an ethanol sensitivity
of 4.579 ppm− 1 and a limit of detection (LOD) of 153 ppb. The observed improvement could be linked to the
enhanced effective area and micro-nanometer thick sensitive layer of the sensor, achieved via inkjet printing.
Overall, this study underscores the synergistic effect of low-temperature induced defect creation and inkjet
printing in enhancing the ethanol sensing performance of MoS2 nanosheets, highlighting a facile strategy for
fabricating high-performance flexible MoS2 gas sensors.

1. Introduction formation of secondary organic aerosols (SOA), and the development of

photochemical smog [1,2]. Additionally, long-term exposure to VOCs
Among all harmful gases, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) has been linked to various health concerns, including throat irritation,
correspond to a category of toxic gases with the highest number of developmental and reproductive disorders, respiratory illness, asthma,
emission sources [1]. These VOC emission sources are divided into DNA damage, and absenteeism in children [3,4]. As a result, monitoring
biogenic and anthropogenic categories, where biogenic sources include VOCs holds great potential for ensuring health and environmental
natural origins like bacteria, forests, plants, and microorganisms. safety. Ethanol is among the most prevalent VOCs widely utilized in the
Anthropogenic sources encompass VOC emissions originating from biomedical, food, chemical, and agricultural sectors [5–7]. Nonetheless,
human activities such as refining fossil fuels, their distribution, com­ alongside its combustible properties, extended exposure to elevated
bustion, and usage in industries and consumer products. The release of levels of ethanol causes liver damage, breathing difficulties, eye irrita­
VOCs has significant implications for our environment and public tion, reduced blood pressure, and cancer – in severe instances [5,8].
health. It can lead to atmospheric issues such as ozone formation, the Hence, there’s a pertinent necessity for early identification of ethanol

* Corresponding authors at: Basic and Applied Science Institute, Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology, New Borg El-Arab 21934, Egypt.
E-mail addresses: [Link]@[Link] (P.C. Tagbo), [Link]@[Link] (A.A. El-Moniem).

[Link]
Received 4 February 2025; Received in revised form 17 March 2025; Accepted 28 March 2025
Available online 2 April 2025
0924-4247/© 2025 Elsevier B.V. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
P.C. Tagbo et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 389 (2025) 116531

vapors. high-performance gas sensors based on MoS2 for room-temperature

Sensors utilizing two-dimensional (2D) materials can detect ethanol detection of ethanol vapors. Initially, we examined the ethanol-
at room temperature, unlike traditional metal oxide semiconductor sensing characteristics of metallic 1T-MoS2, defect-free semi­
sensors that need external activation sources to achieve optimal inter­ conducting 2H-MoS2, and the defect-rich 2H-MoS2 (named 2H-Vc MoS2
action with ethanol [9–12]. This capability originates from the high for convenience). 1T-MoS2 was synthesized through a simple hydro­
surface-to-volume ratio, ample active sites for gas adsorption, and thermal process, with intercalated ammonium ions serving as a stabi­
adjustable electronic properties of 2D materials [13,14]. 2D materials lizing agent, maintaining its metallic phase. A low-temperature
such as graphene, hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN), MXene, and transi­ annealing of the 1T-MoS2 led to a transition to the 2H phase, accom­
tion metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) are gaining attention from re­ panied by the creation of sulfur vacancies. The 1T-MoS2 sensor shows a
searchers as room-temperature gas-sensitive materials, with TMDs p-type behavior in response to ethanol. In contrast, the 2H-Vc MoS2
showing the greatest potential [15]. TMDs such as molybdenum sensor retained an n-type sensing behavior of the pristine defect-free 2H-
dichalcogenides (MoS2) are known for their exceptional gas perfor­ MoS2 towards the reducing ethanol gas.
mance resulting from their intrinsic high surface-to-volume ratio, high
adsorption coefficient, layer-dependent electronic features, poly­ 2. Experimental section
morphic nature, and rapid heterogeneous electron transfer [16–18].
MoS2 is comprised of a molybdenum layer interleaved between two 2.1. Synthesis of 1T-MoS2 and 2H-Vc MoS2
layers of sulfur, resulting in a layered structure. Depending on the co­
ordination of the Mo atom, MoS2 typically displays different poly­ 1T-MoS2 was synthesized via the hydrothermal method following
morphic forms: the hexagonal phase (2H-MoS2) having trigonal the previously reported work [36], with little modification. Typically,
coordination and the tetragonal phase (1T-MoS2) having octahedral 1.235 g of (NH4)6Mo7O24.4H2O and 1.142 g of CH4N2S were dissolved in
coordination [19,20]. In comparison, 1T-MoS2 shows metallic charac­ 35 mL of double-deionized water by magnetically stirring for 1 hr. The
teristics, while 2H-MoS2 is semiconducting, providing them with diverse mixture was then moved to a 60 mL Teflon stainless-steel autoclave and
electronic properties that can be utilized in gas sensing applications. heated in an oven at 200◦ C for 24 h. Once it cooled to room temperature,
Nonetheless, the application of 1T-MoS2 as a gas-sensitive material has the black precipitate was rinsed three times with ethanol. Then, the
been limited recently due to its intricate synthesis process, metallic precipitate was dried in a vacuum oven at 60◦ C for 4 h.
properties, and metastability [21]. Conversely, 2H-MoS2 is thermody­ As shown in Figure S1, the defective 2H-MoS2 (labeled 2H-Vc MoS2)
namically stable, and its semiconducting characteristics, along with its was synthesized by annealing the as-synthesized 1T-MoS2 under a ni­
adjustable bandgap, make it a suitable sensitive material for trogen gas environment at 350◦ C for 2 h. For information on the prep­
chemo-resistive gas sensors to detect analytes such as NH3, NO2, and aration of the defect-free 2H-MoS2 (denoted as 2H-MoS2), refer to the
H2S, among others [22–24]. supplementary file.
Meanwhile, pristine 2H-MoS2 exhibits low response to carbon-
containing gases like carbon monoxide (CO) and VOCs such as 2.2. Ink formulation
ethanol, acetone, and methanol due to its non-catalytic nature [17]. This
stems from the inactive sulfur atoms in its predominantly exposed basal An effective combination of grinding and sonication yields a
plane combined with the limited and hard-to-reach active edge sites of consistently dispersed high-concentration MoS2 nanosheet ink [37]. In
2H-MoS2 [25,26]. However, it has been demonstrated that effective this study, 400 mg of 2H-Vc MoS2 was ground with 0.4 mL of DMF in a
activation of the basal plane can be achieved via sulfur-vacancy creation mortar for 2 h, followed by drying at 60◦ C for 2 h in a vacuum oven.
[27]. These defective sites on 2H-MoS2 nanosheets generate high-energy Next, 10 mg of PVP (K30), which serves as a binder and stabilizing
binding locations for gas adsorption, activate the traditionally inert agent, was mixed with 13.75 mL of distilled water (DW) and sonicated
basal plane, and reveal the active edge sites of 2H-MoS2, thus offering for 30 min. Subsequently, the exfoliated 2H-Vc MoS2 and 11.25 mL of
numerous active sites for optimal interaction with the targeted gas ethanol were added to this mixture and sonicated for 5 h (Figure S2).
[27–29]. For instance, Tsai et al. [30], showed that common S-vacant After this step, approximately 3 vol% of ethylene glycol was included to
sites in 2H-MoS2 serve as active sites with enhanced catalytic activity. enhance the ink’s viscosity. The subsequent dispersion was then
Also, Tian et al. [29], in a density functional theory (DFT) investigation, centrifuged at 6000 rpm for 10 min, and the top portion was filtered
demonstrated that defective MoS2 with a sulfur vacancy possesses a using a 0.45 µm syringe filter to eliminate larger flakes that could
stronger binding energy with ethanol, resulting in enhanced interactions obstruct the printer’s nozzle. The printability of the formulated ink was
with ethanol molecules. assessed by calculating the Z-number, defined as the inverse of the
In addition to defect engineering, the gas sensing fabrication tech­ Ohnesorge number (Oh); see Eq. 1 below. Where ρ, γ, d, and η represent
nique is another effective way of enhancing the overall performance of the ink’s density, surface tension, drop rate, and viscosity, respectively.
gas sensors. Conventional fabrication methods, such as the drop-cast The ink rheological characterizations are presented in the supplemen­
technique, face challenges such as material wastage and a diminished tary file.
effective area due to uneven material distribution [31,32]. This affects √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
key gas sensing parameters such as response, response-recovery times, Z = Oh− 1 =
ργd
(1)
and reproducibility, limiting its application for large-scale fabrication of η
high-performance gas sensors. Conversely, the drop-on-demand inkjet
printing (IJP) technology is a high-precision, contactless device fabri­ 2.3. Device fabrication
cation technique that allows for scalability, consistent performance
across devices, and cost-effective printing of multifunctional materials An interdigitated laser-induced graphene (LIG) electrode featuring
on various substrates [33,34]. IJP is proficient in fabricating six fingers with a gap spacing of 0.5 mm was produced on a Kapton
gas-sensitive materials in micro-nanometer dimensions, where the Polyimide substrate of 125 µm in thickness using a 50 W CO2 (10.6 µm)
Debye effect plays a critical role. At this micro-nano scale, the adsorbed laser. A predesigned pattern (Figure S4) was engraved on the Kapton
gas can effectively influence the distribution of inner electrons within substrate with a 2.25 W laser power, a laser engraving speed of 3.12
the grain. This capability enables the gas sensor to achieve an optimal cms− 1, and an image density of 1000 pulses per inch (PPI). Following
response to the target gas [35]. this, an Autodrop Gantry AD-P-9000 (microdrop Technologies GmbH,
In this regard, we propose a facile and effective strategy incorpo­ Norderstedt, Germany) inkjet printer was used to print the sensitive
rating S-vacancy creation and inkjet printing for fabricating flexible and material 2H-Vc MoS2) on the LIG electrode. By fine-tuning the printing

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P.C. Tagbo et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 389 (2025) 116531

parameters to a voltage of 42 V, a pulse length of 24 µs, and a jetting

Rgas − Rair
frequency of 100 Hz, stable and jettable ink drops were achieved. A R= × 100% (4)
Rair
uniform print was created by setting the drop spacing to 0.1 mm in the
X-axis and 0.08 mm in the Y-axis. Additionally, the substrate tempera­ ΔR
ture was kept at 70◦ C to facilitate controlled and even evaporation of the S= (5)
ΔC
ink solvent, thereby avoiding coffee ring formation [38]. The optimal
number of printed layers was determined by experimenting with layer RMSnoise
LOD = 3 × (6)
counts of 2, 3, 5, and 7. Finally, another sensor was produced by S
drop-casting 23 µL of the sensitive material on the LIG electrode, and its √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
performance was assessed against that of the inkjet-printed sensor. It’s ∑
(Ri − R)2
essential to highlight that all printed sensors were annealed at 350◦ C for RMSnoise = (7)
n
2 h to eliminate the effects of the PVP stabilizing agent on their
performance. Where RMSnoise is the root-mean-square deviation of blank response, Ri
is the arbitrary response value of the sensor in air, R is the average value
2.4. Gas sensing measurement of Ri and S is the sensor’s sensitivity.
Fig. 1 shows the device fabrication process and the gas measurement
The measurement setup adopted in this current work has been re­ setup.
ported in the work of Wu et al. [2]. In this procedure, a predetermined
volume of ethanol, corresponding to the desired ethanol concentration
in ppm, is introduced into a gas chamber containing the built sensor, and 2.5. Characterizations
variations in resistance form the sensor’s response as captured using a
Keysight 34970 A Agilent data logger. The sensor was exposed to The powdered X-ray diffraction (XRD) peaks of the as-synthesized
varying ethanol concentrations ranging from 10 to 70 ppm at room materials were acquired using the Shimadzu XRD-6100 diffractometer
temperature (RT) – 22.5◦ C. The concentration of the target gas was with Cu Kα radiation (λ = 1.542 Å) at a scanning rate of 12◦ mins− 1,
obtained from a liquid ethanol source (of 99.99 % purity) using Eq. 2 ranging from 5 to 80◦ , to assess the crystallinity of the samples. Addi­
below, where C represents the desired ethanol concentration (ppm), M is tionally, the morphology and elemental composition of the samples
the molecular weight of ethanol (gmol− 1), D is the purity of the ethanol were evaluated via transmission electron microscopy (TEM) (JEOL.
source, and ρ is the density of ethanol (gmL− 1), V1 and V2 represent the JEM-2100F, Japan) at 200 kV operating conditions, and HR-TEM inte­
volume of the ethanol liquid (L), and chamber volume (L), respectively grated with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). The absorption
[39]. Eqs. 3 and 4 characterize the sensor’s response to ethanol exposure spectra were obtained using UV-Vis spectroscopy (Shimadzu UV-2600).
and define the behaviors of n-type and p-type sensors, respectively. The The surface features of the printed device were analyzed through
sensor’s response time is measured as the time it takes to reach 90 % of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (Model FEI Quanta 3D 200i) under
its response, while the recovery time is the time taken to return to 90 % an acceleration voltage of 20 – 30 kV. The functional groups/chemical
of its initial resistance value in the absence of ethanol gas. The sensor’s species were examined with Bruker Invenio-S FTIR spectroscopy. EPR
sensitivity, defined as the slope of the calibration curve, is obtained from was employed to explore the vacancy density of the synthesized mate­
Eq. 5, and the theoretical limit of detection from Eqs. 6 and 7. rials. The free radicals generated (EPR signals) were measured at room
temperature using an X-band EMX spectrometer (Bruker, Germany) with
22.4 × ρ × D × V1
C= (2) a standard rectangular cavity of ER 4102. The N2 adsorption-desorption
M × V2 characteristics were studied through Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET)
analysis utilizing a BELSORP Mini II. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) was
Rair − Rgas
R= × 100% (3) used to determine the particle size and zeta potential of the prepared
Rgas
ink, with a Malvern Panalytical zetasizer Nano-ZS. The viscosity of the
as-prepared ink was assessed using the Malvern Panalytical KINEXUS

Fig. 1. Device fabrication process with gas measurement set-up.

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P.C. Tagbo et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 389 (2025) 116531

PRO Rheometer. from the adsorbed solvent (water) molecules during the synthesis and is
responsible for the observed 2θ shift towards the lower angle and
3. Results and discussions interlayer expansion in its XRD. Also, the NH+ 4 present in 1T-MoS2 is
responsible for the stability of the 1T phase of the sample. Accordingly,
3.1. Phase, structural, and morphological characterizations due to the metastability of the 1T phase of MoS2, various stabilizing
agents have been explored in literature, such as NH+ 4 [36,51], Co [52],
All the samples underwent characterization via X-ray diffraction glucose [53]
(XRD), as illustrated in Fig. 2(a). It is observed that both 2H-MoS2 and The microstructure of all samples was assessed using transmission
2H-Vc MoS2 show characteristic peaks at 2θ = 14.4◦ , 33.7◦ , 39.8◦ , and electron microscopy (TEM) and high-resolution TEM (HR-TEM). The
59.3◦ , which correspond to the (002), (100), (103), and (110) planes of nanosheet-like structure of all samples is displayed in Fig. 3(a-c), where
the 2H-phase MoS2 polymorph (JCPDS 37–1492) [40,41]. However, the the visible ripples and corrugation highlight the ultrathin and flexible
002 peak of 2H-MoS2 displays a shift to a lower 2θ angle of 12.7◦ relative characteristics of the nanosheets [36]. The HR-TEM image of 1T-MoS2 in
to 2H-Vc MoS2, which could be due to the expansion of interlayers Fig. 3(d) shows a larger interlayer spacing of the nanosheets, resulting
resulting from the intercalation of solvent molecules [42]. Conversely, from the intercalation of NH+ 4 into the nanosheets. This interlayer
the appearance of the 001 peak at 2θ = 9.1◦ signifies the presence of the spacing corresponds with the d-spacing of 9.60 Å for the 001 plane in the
expanded interlayer 1T-MoS2 phase [43,44]. The d spacing of the 001 diffraction pattern. Conversely, annealing the 1T-MoS2 leads to the
peak was obtained using Bragg’s law to be 9.60 Å, which is approxi­ deintercalation of NH+ 4 , as seen in 2H-Vc MoS2, causing a decrease in the
mately 3.46 Å larger than that of the 002 peak (6.14 Å) of 1T-MoS2. This interlayer spacing of the nanosheets, as depicted in Fig. 3(f). The rough
difference (i.e., 3.46 Å) aligns with the bonding diameter (3.5 Å) of surface of the nanosheet and the irregularities in the sheet fringes in
hydrogen in NH+ 4 , confirming the presence of NH4 in the interlayers of
+ Fig. 3(f) may be associated with defect-induced cracks on the basal
the nanosheets [36,44]. Furthermore, the absence of the 001 peak planes of the 2H-Vc MoS2 nanosheet [28]. In contrast, the smooth sur­
alongside a decrease in the d spacing of 2H-Vc MoS2 verifies the dein­ face of 2H-MoS2 in Fig. 3(e) could indicate the absence of defects in the
tercalation of NH+ 4 upon annealing, accompanied by a phase transition. nanosheet. Also, the expanded interlayer spacing of the 002 planes of
Figure S3 illustrates the optical absorbance spectra for all samples. 2H-MoS2 relative to that of 2H-Vc MoS2 could be ascribed to the inter­
The consistent decrease in absorbance with increasing wavelengths in calation of solvent molecules.
1T-MoS2 reflects its plasmonic metallic characteristics. Conversely, the The energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectrum for all samples is rep­
appearance of two absorption peaks at 612.5 nm and 663 nm for 2H- resented by Fig. 3(g-i), indicating that all samples are composed solely
MoS2, as well as at 627 nm and 675 nm for 2H-Vc MoS2, corresponds to of molybdenum and sulfur. However, a notable decrease in the atomic
exciton A (1.79 eV) and B (1.91 eV), arising from the direct exciton percentage of sulfur and a corresponding increase in molybdenum are
transitions at the K point of the first Brillouin zone [45]. However, the observed in 2H-Vc MoS2 (Fig. 3(i)), when compared to 1T-MoS2 in Fig. 3
apparent energy separation between excitons A and B, seen in Figure S3 (g). This difference may result from the loss of sulfur atoms, leading to
(c) for the 2H-Vc MoS2 spectrum, results from the combined effects of the formation of S-vacancies on the sandwich-like structure of MoS2,
S-vacancy-induced interlayer coupling and spin-orbit coupling [27,46]. thereby exposing more molybdenum atoms to the surface following the
Additionally, the broad peak at lower wavelengths observed in both annealing of 1T-MoS2. Additionally, the lower S:Mo ratio of 2H-Vc MoS2
2H-MoS2 and 2H-Vc MoS2 can be attributed to the quantum effects corroborates the existence of sulfur vacancies in comparison to 2H-
related to the nanosheets’ smaller lateral dimensions [47]. MoS2. This further confirms our claim of the existence of defect-induced
To identify the presence of the various chemical bonds and func­ S-vacancies on the nanosheets.
tional groups present in the samples, the FTIR spectrum of all samples To validate the existence of defects and S vacancies in 2H-Vc MoS2,
was obtained, as illustrated in Fig. 2(b). While the characteristic peaks of as observed in HR-TEM and EDX spectra, electron spin resonance (ESR),
MoS2 were observed in all the samples, there is an observable shift to­ also referred to as electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), was utilized
wards the lower wavenumber of the MoS2 characteristic peaks in the 2H- for all samples. ESR is a powerful method for analyzing chemical species
Vc MoS2 sample compared to the 2H-MoS2 sample. This could be that possess unpaired electrons. Defective areas within a material typi­
attributed to the presence of S-vacancies in the sample [48]. Addition­ cally generate unpaired electrons; therefore, utilizing ESR to gauge the
ally, the appearance of a sharp peak at 1650 cm− 1 of 2H-MoS2 and the resonance absorption of these unpaired electrons in a magnetic field is a
broad peak at 1407 cm− 1 of 1T-MoS2 can be ascribed to O-H bending valuable approach for quantifying S vacancies and defects in 2H-Vc
modes [49,50] and NH+ 4 vibration [51] within the interlayer of 2H-MoS2 MoS2 [54]. Fig. 4(a) displays the ESR spectra for all samples. The ESR
and 1T-MoS2, respectively. The OH present in 2H-MoS2 could originate peak observed at H = 345 mT reveals the level of defective sites with

Fig. 2. (a) Diffraction pattern and (b) FTIR spectrum of all samples.

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P.C. Tagbo et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 389 (2025) 116531

Fig. 3. (a) TEM –1T-MoS2, (b) TEM -2H-MoS2, (c) TEM -2H-Vc MoS2, (d) HR-TEM –1T-MoS2, (e) HR-TEM -2H-MoS2, (f) TEM -2H-Vc MoS2, and Elemental
composition of (g) 1T-MoS2, (h) 2H-MoS2, and (i) 2H-Vc MoS2.

Fig. 4. (a) ESR spectrum of all samples (b) N2 adsorption-desorption isotherm. (c) Pore size distribution curve.

unpaired electrons in the samples. The noticeably greater peak intensity numerous accessible active sites could facilitate stronger interactions
of 2H-Vc MoS2 (with a g-factor of 2.01) compared to 1T-MoS2 and with ethanol molecules. Fig. 4(c) shows the pore size distribution for all
2H-MoS2 corroborates the elevated concentrations of S vacancies and samples determined by the Barrett–Joiner–Halenda (BJH) model. While
defective sites in 2H-Vc MoS2. both 1T-MoS2 and 2H-MoS2 have a monomodal pore size distribution
In addition, the impact of defect engineering on improving the gas- with mean pore diameters of 12.11 nm and 14.55 nm, respectively, 2H-
sensing capabilities of the sensors was explored using Bru­ Vc MoS2 exhibits a trimodal pore size distribution that spans from
nauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) analysis. Fig. 4(b-c) illustrates the N2 mesoporosity to macroporosity. This phenomenon can be attributed to
adsorption-desorption isotherm and the pore size distribution of the thermally induced nanosheet cracks, as evidenced by the discontinuity
samples. Based on the IUPAC classification, all samples displayed a type observed in the sheet fringes of the HR-TEM images. The hierarchical
IV adsorption-desorption isotherm featuring an H3 hysteresis loop. This pore structure of 2H-Vc MoS2 contributes to its exceptional capability
implies that 1T-MoS2, 2H-MoS2, and 2H-Vc MoS2 exhibit a mesoporous for ethanol sensing.
adsorption-desorption mechanism. However, 2H-Vc MoS2 possesses a
surface area of 93.34 m²/g, considerably higher than 1T-MoS2
3.2. Gas sensing performance
(13.18 m²/g) and 2H-MoS2 (26.23 m²/g). This enhancement may be
associated with the activation of the inert basal plane, coupled with the
Initially, the gas-sensing features of the sensors (1T-MoS2, 2H-MoS2
exposure of more active edge sites in 2H-Vc MoS2; hence, there’s a
and 2H-Vc MoS2) were evaluated by exposing them to 70 ppm of
greater number of active sites due to defect creation. Consequently,
ethanol. The sensors were fabricated by drop-casting an equal volume

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P.C. Tagbo et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 389 (2025) 116531

(23.3 µL) of the sensitive materials onto the LIG electrode. As shown in the 2H-MoS2 sensitive material [22,57], thus improving the sensing
Fig. 5(a), the 1T-MoS2 sensor exhibits a p-type response to ethanol, in capabilities of 2H-MoS2 relative to the metallic 1T-MoS2.
contrast to the n-type responses exhibited by both 2H-MoS2 and 2H-Vc Furthermore, the 2H-Vc MoS2 sensor exhibits a significantly higher
MoS2 sensors. The Hall-effect measurements of both 1T-MoS2 and 2H- response than the defect-free 2H-MoS2 sensor. This remarkable perfor­
Vc MoS2 sensors were examined to determine the intrinsic semi­ mance may be linked to the plentiful edge S-vacancies and the thermally
conducting properties of the sensors. Accordingly, the polarity – positive activated basal-active sites found in 2H-Vc MoS2 nanosheets, offering
or negative- values of the Hall voltage (VH) indicate the majority of the increased adsorption sites for ethanol. This aligns with the work of Tian
material’s charge carrier, where positive VH implies a p-type semi­ et al. [29], who, through a first-principle study, demonstrated that
conducting behavior and negative VH means n-type semiconducting ethanol molecules preferentially adsorb on S-vacant sites with higher
behavior. As shown in Table S2, both sensors are intrinsically n-type adsorption energy and charge transfer than on the defect-free sites.
semiconducting. Additionally, the 2H-Vc MoS2 sensor demonstrated a quick response and
The p-type sensing behavior of the 1T-MoS2 sensor toward ethanol moderate recovery (Fig. 5(e)), highlighting the complete enhancement
can be attributed to the intercalant retaining its metallic characteristics. in ethanol sensing performance attainable through the sulfur-vacancy
The mechanism behind this p-type sensing behavior could be associated creation on pristine 2H-MoS2 nanosheets.
with the doping-induced Femi level shift caused by the intercalant, Figure S9(a-b) shows the dynamic response curves of 2H-Vc MoS2
which presumably lowers the chemical potential of the 1T-MoS2 sensor fabricated by inkjet printing and drop-casting to various ethanol con­
in the presence of reducing ethanol gas; hence, more electrons are centrations. An estimated 23.3 µL of 2H-Vc MoS2 volume was drop-cast
extracted from 1T-MoS2 instead of the otherwise [55]. on the LIG electrode and allowed to dry overnight at room temperature.
Interestingly, the 2H-Vc MoS2 sensor demonstrates n-type sensing Afterward, the sensor was heated at 70◦ C for 2 h in a vacuum oven to
characteristics when exposed to ethanol gas, as illustrated in Fig. 5(c). remove remnant solvent molecules. The ethanol performance of the
This phenomenon may be ascribed to the deintercalation of the sensor was compared with that of the printed sensor (3 layers), whose
ammonium ion during the annealing process, which leads to a shift from volume was estimated as highlighted in the supplementary file.
the p-type behavior of the 1T-MoS2 to the typical sensing behavior of n- As illustrated in Fig. 6(a), the response from all sensors rises steadily
type semiconductors in the presence of reducing gases. Additionally, the with increasing ethanol concentrations. Nonetheless, the sensors
2H-MoS2 sensor displays an n-type response when reacting to ethanol, as showed incomplete recovery, which is evident from the baseline drift in
seen in Fig. 5(b) the dynamic response curve (Figure S9(a-b)). This phenomenon can be
Fig. 5(d) illustrates the performance of every sensor when subjected linked to the strong adsorption between the defective 2H-Vc MoS2 and
to 70 ppm of ethanol. Compared to the 1T-MoS2 sensor, the 2H-MoS2 ethanol molecules [18,58], resulting in slow desorption kinetics of
sensor shows a response of 45.14 %, which is about 21 times greater ethanol gas at room temperature. However, allowing the sensor to
than that of the 1T-MoS2 (2.15 %). This improved response may be recover for an extended period facilitates full recovery. Also, both UV
attributed to the enhanced accessibility of the active edge sites present in illumination and thermal excitation have proven effective in promoting
the 2H-MoS2 phase [56]. This is supported by the presence of the 103 the complete recovery of MoS2-based sensors [59]. The L3 sensor
planes – which serve as a fingerprint of the edge site, as evidenced in the demonstrates superior gas-sensing performance (Fig. 6(a-d)). For
XRD spectra of both the 2H-MoS2 and 2H-Vc MoS2 phases [14], whereas example, with 50 ppm of ethanol, the L3 sensor showed a response of
it is not found in the 1T-MoS2 phase. Furthermore, the intrinsic semi­ 336 %, about 4 times greater than the drop-cast sensor (92 %). Also, the
conducting characteristics facilitate significant changes in the charge L3 sensor has response-recovery times of 101.7 s/ 114.3 s, whereas the
carrier density due to minor electron transfers between ethanol gas and drop-cast sensor exhibits slower response-recovery times of

Fig. 5. Ethanol sensing behaviors of MoS2 sensors at RT (a) 1T-MoS2, (b) 2H-MoS2, (c) 2H-Vc MoS2, (d) Response of each sensor, and (e) response-recovery time of
each sensor.

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P.C. Tagbo et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 389 (2025) 116531

Fig. 6. Ethanol sensing performance at RT of sensors fabricated by drop-cast method and inkjet printing. (a) Response, (b) Response time, (c) Recovery time, and (d)
Selectivity test at 10 ppm concentration.

175.5 s/136.8 s, respectively. The improved response of the L3 sensor minimized surface impurities that could impact the sensing mechanisms
may be ascribed to the uniform deposition of the sensitive material by of MoS2 [13].
the inkjet printer on the LIG electrode, leading to a more effective uti­ Fig. 7(a) shows the dynamic response curves of the printed sensors to
lization of the sensor’s effective area for ethanol interaction [31]. differing ethanol concentrations. The L3 sensor displays exceptional
Conversely, the drop-cast sensor suffers from the superhydrophilicity of response, whereas the L5 and L7 sensors show a consistent decline in
the LIG substrate, which causes the drop-cast ink to accumulate at the response as the thickness increases. This could be due to the fact that
edges of the electrode, resulting in film inhomogeneity, which translates sensor-gas interaction in chemiresistive gas sensors occurs within the
to a reduction in the effective sensing area. However, the high-precision inner layers of the sensor [61,62]. Also, the thickness of the gas-sensitive
drop-on-demand inkjet printer is equipped with controllable ink depo­ layer has been shown to significantly influence the sensing performance
sition volume, enabling the avoidance of coffee-ring formation through of gas sensors, as sensitive layers close to Debye length are prone to high
an optimized printing process. gas responses [63]. Therefore, increasing the thickness of the sensitive
The impact of interfering gases on the drop-cast and L3 sensors was layer by printing additional layers (L5 and L7) limits the accessibility of
investigated at a concentration of 10 ppm with various analytes. As the effective surface and, in turn, reduces the sensor’s response. Addi­
illustrated in Fig. 6(d), both sensors show a strong preference for ethanol tionally, the transduction path increases with increasing thickness of the
gas, displaying the highest response to it. This could be ascribed to the sensitive layer, as indicated in the sensor’s response-recovery time
distinct chemical properties of the analytes, prompting the sensor’s shown in Fig. 7(b-c). Conversely, the performance of the L2 sensor
distinguishable adsorption capacity toward them [60]. However, a sig­ might be influenced by a limited amount of active sensing materials,
nificant enhancement in the selectivity of the sensor is achieved via potentially resulting in an imperfect percolation path within the printed
inkjet-printing, highlighting the holistic enhancement in the ethanol layer. Fig. 7(d) presents the electrical characteristics of all printed sen­
sensing performance achievable via inkjet-printing. sors with LIG electrodes. The linear I-V curves passing through the origin
To optimize the ideal layer thickness of the sensor, the as-formulated for all sensors imply an ohmic contact between the printed layers and
high-concentration ink was utilized in printing different layers (2, 3, 5, the LIG substrate [64].
and 7) – referred to as L2, L3, L5, and L7. Fig. 7(a-c) illustrates the gas- The sensor underwent additional examination to assess the repro­
sensing capabilities of the different printed layers. Notably, all the ducibility of its response, an essential factor in measuring the consis­
printed sensors demonstrated n-type sensing behavior in response to tency of the sensor in delivering the same output for identical gas
ethanol, which aligns with the observations from the drop-cast sensor, concentrations. It was evaluated through five consecutive cycles at
suggesting that the ink formulation and printing process effectively 10 ppm of ethanol. As illustrated in Fig. 8(a), the sensor exhibited

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P.C. Tagbo et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 389 (2025) 116531

Fig. 7. Ethanol sensing performance of printed layers at RT (a) Response, (b) Response time, (c) Recovery time, and (d) I-V Curve.

Fig. 8. (a) Reproducibility test, (b) Long-term stability test, (c) Flexibility test.

excellent reproducibility, showing a minimal percentage error of 3.14 % 60◦ , and 80◦ ). As can be seen in Fig. 8(c), the sensor showed acceptable
in response. In addition, this test was extended to 50 and 70 ppm of flexibility, as it lost about 24 % of its initial value (response deviation) at
ethanol to validate the excellent performance of the as-fabricated an 80◦ bending angle. Here, the response deviation of the sensor is
sensor. As shown in Figure S11, the sensor still maintains outstanding defined as ΔS = S0 − S0 Sθ × 100%, where Sθ and S0 are the response
reproducibility, evidenced by the low percentage error in response after at bending angle θ and zero bending angle, respectively [65,66].
some sensing cycles. The long-term stability of the L3 sensor was also Figure S10 illustrates the L3 sensor’s linearity to increasing ethanol
assessed over 30 days, and Fig. 8(b) depicts the sensor’s stability during concentrations.
this time. As shown, the L3 sensor shows a minor decrease in response to To investigate the effect of relative humidity (RH) on the sensor’s
10 ppm of ethanol over 30 days. Furthermore, the L3 sensor was sub­ response, air with varying degrees of RH was introduced into the
jected to a bending test to examine the flexibility of the printed device. A chamber before gas measurements. The RH value was quantified with
custom-made bending apparatus was used, and the sensor underwent the help of a commercially available humidity sensor. Fig. 9(a) shows
approximately four bending cycles at different bending angles (20◦ , 40◦ , the dynamic response curve of sensor L3 to varying RH values. As shown

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P.C. Tagbo et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 389 (2025) 116531

Fig. 9. Sensor’s response to varying Relative Humidity.

in Fig. 9(b), the sensor exhibits a decreasing response to 30 ppm of of the sensor rises. However, when in contact with ethanol gas, ethanol
ethanol as RH increases, losing about 53.39 % of its response when RH molecules interact with the adsorbed O−2 , releasing the trapped electrons
increases to 90 %. This decrease in the sensor’s response could be linked back into the conduction band of the sensor. As a result, there is a
to the adsorption of water molecules on the sensor’s surface. Upon decrease in the potential barrier and a successive reduction in the sen­
exposure to humid air, water molecules adsorb on the active sites of the sor’s resistance. The reaction of ethanol with the adsorbed O−2 is shown
sensor, thereby blocking their accessibility by the ethanol molecules – in Eqs. 10 and 11 below [78,80].
translating to a reduction in the sensor’s response to the gas as RH
C2 H6 O(gas) → C2 H6 O(ads) (10)
increases.
Table 1 shows our sensor significantly outperforms most of the het­
C2 H6 O(ads) + 3O−2 (ads) →2CO2 + 3H2 O + 3e− (11)
erostructure functionalized and noble-metal coupled MoS2 sensors in the
literature. To validate the proposed sensing mechanism, we conducted quali­
tative and quantitative analyses of the effluent gas from the sensing
4. Gas sensing mechanism of 2H-Vc MoS2 chamber. This involved exposing the sensor to a specific volume of
ethanol and leaving it for a few minutes before purging the chamber
The gas sensing mechanism of all fabricated sensors in the current with N2 gas into a GC/TCD system (Shimadzu-GC-2014) for analysis.
work follows the oxygen adsorption model [77]. Being a The effluent was analyzed both before and after introducing the sensor.
room-temperature sensor with an n-type semiconducting behavior (i.e., In the absence of the sensor (pink line in Figure S12), the only observ­
2H or 2H-Vc MoS2 sensor), upon exposure to air, atmospheric O2 mol­ able peak at 1.3 mins retention time represents the characteristic peak of
ecules adsorb onto the surface of the sensor, capturing some electrons the carrier gas (N2) (Figure S12 (a)). However, in the presence of the
from the conduction band of the sensor, as shown in Fig. 10 [67,78]. sensor (black line), the emergence of a second peak at 3.6 mins retention
Consequently, the adsorbed O2 molecules ionize to O-2 oxygen species time corroborates the generation of CO2 (Figure S12 (b)), which likely
following Eqs. 8 and 9 below [79]. resulted from the room-temperature oxidation of ethanol molecules on
the sensor’s surface. To quantify the concentration of the CO2 gas
O2 (gas) →O2 (ads) (8)
generated, the peak area analysis was done, and the CO2 concentration
was found to be 309 ppm (Table S3).
O2 (ads) + e− →O−2 (ads) (9)
The reactions described in Eq. 8–11 also apply to 1T-MoS2. How­
The electron capture on the sensor’s surface results in the formation ever, due to its p-type ethanol sensing behavior, on exposure to an
of an electron-depleted layer (EDL) and the subsequent increase in the ethanol environment, the sensor’s resistance increases. This is because
potential barrier between the nanosheets. Consequently, the resistance

Table 1
Performance comparison of Ethanol gas sensors.
Sensitive material Fabrication method Operating temperature (◦ C) Concentration Response Ref.
(ppm) (%)
a
is for S = Ra /Rg
a
MoS2/CeO2 Drop-cast RT 30 5 [67]
MoS2/PSi Drop-cast RT 40 18 [68]
MoS2/TiO2 Drop-cast 350 100 62 [69]
a
MoS2-CuGaO2 Thin film RT 100 6 [5]
a
MoS2-NiCo2O4 Thin film 170 100 9 [70]
Fe-doped TiO2/MoS2 Layer-by-layer self-assembly RT 10 170 [2]
MoS2 Beam lithography 100 3000 18 [71]
a
CuFe2O4/MoS2 Coating RT 100 14 [72]
MoS2/WO3 Drop-cast 260 100 70 [73]
MoS2/Ti3C2Tx Drop-cast 140 100 40.2 [74]
Fe-doped ZnO Spray deposition 125 100 77.25 [75]
TiO2/ZnO Drop-cast 280 100 35 [76]
2H-Vc MoS2 Inkjet-printing RT 50 336 This work

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P.C. Tagbo et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 389 (2025) 116531

Fig. 10. Ethanol Sensing Mechanism of 2H-Vc MoS2 at RT.

the 1T-MoS2 exhibits a lower chemical potential than that of ethanol gas The thickness of the gas-sensitive layer has been shown to signifi­
[55], courtesy of the intercalated ammonium ion present in the nano­ cantly influence the sensing performance of gas sensors, as sensitive
sheets; hence, more electrons are extracted from 1T-MoS2. A similar layers close to Debye length are prone to high gas responses [63]. Sen­
p-type behavior of exfoliated MoS2 was illustrated by Donarelli et al. sors fabricated via the drop-cast method have film thicknesses ranging
[81], who attributed it to the N-doping resulting from the degradation of from submillimeters to millimeters. This, combined with the uneven
intercalated NMP solvents in the nanosheet. Interestingly, upon deposition of sensitive films, results in a limited number of high-energy
annealing at 250 ◦ C, the sensor displayed an n-type semiconducting surfaces available for gas adsorption [35], which strongly influences the
behavior to NO2 gas [81]. In our case, the ammonium ions de-intercalate overall sensing performance of the gas sensors. In contrast, the versa­
upon annealing at 350 ◦ C, leading to a phase change to the 2H semi­ tility of drop-on-demand inkjet printing guarantees uniform film depo­
conducting phase. This results in the n-type ethanol detection charac­ sition and the fabrication of sensitive layers up to nanometers thick,
teristics of the 2H-Vc MoS2 sensor. Also, the n-type sensing behavior is consequently promoting the effective utilization of all effective sensitive
interestingly indicative of S-vacancies on the 2H-Vc MoS2 nanosheet, areas of the gas sensor. In conclusion, the exceptional performance of
which is consistent with reports in literature, as Mo-rich MoS2 conven­ the fabricated sensor can be attributed to the synergistic effect resulting
tionally exhibits n-type behavior [77,81]. from defect-enhanced ethanol adsorption at the sulfur vacancies within
Common defective sites (S-vacant sites) in 2H-MoS2 serve as active MoS2 and an increased effective surface area and a micro-nanometer
sites with enhanced catalytic activity [30]. Similarly, Linghu et al. [82], thick sensitive layer, which is achievable through the inkjet printing
have demonstrated that S-vacant sites significantly increase the technique.
adsorption strength of different analytes. In the same vein, Tian et al.
[29], in a first principle calculation, demonstrated that ethanol mole­ 5. Conclusion
cules preferentially adsorb on S-vacant sites with tilted orientation –
evidencing the strong binding energy of S-vacant sites to ethanol. This work presents a facile and effective strategy comprising sulfur
To understand the role of defective sites in the sensing response of vacancy creation and inkjet printing for significantly enhancing the
our sensor, we evaluated the adsorption energy of ethanol on S-vacant ethanol response of MoS2 nanosheets. It has been successfully demon­
sites of defective MoS2 and defect-free MoS2 monolayers, respectively, strated that low-temperature induced sulfur vacancies create ample
through a density functional theory (DFT) calculation using Gaussian 09 active sites for enhanced binding of ethanol molecules on 2H-MoS2
software. Table S4 shows the corresponding adsorption energies of nanosheets. The defective 2H-Vc MoS2 sensor displayed a better sensing
ethanol on S-vacant sites of defective MoS2 and defect-free MoS2 performance, about four times higher than the defect-free 2H-MoS2.
monolayers. As observed, the ethanol molecule adsorbs on the S-vacant Furthermore, the unique versatility of inkjet printing was shown to
site of the defect-rich MoS2 with an adsorption energy of − 0.1953 eV. improve further the response and response-recovery time of the 2H-Vc
The negative sign implies that the interaction is exothermic; hence, it is MoS2 sensor. The inkjet-printed sensor demonstrated a significantly
thermodynamically favorable [83]. On the other hand, ethanol higher ethanol response and a shorter response-recovery time than its
adsorption on the defect-free MoS2 exhibits an endothermic interaction drop-cast counterpart. This improvement could be linked to the
due to its adsorption energy of 0.16711 eV. Moreover, the Bader charge enhanced effective area and micro-nanometer thick sensitive layer of the
distributions of the two proposed structures are investigated on a sensor, achieved via inkjet printing. In conclusion, an effective combi­
theoretical basis, as shown in Figure S13. As illustrated, there is a sig­ nation of defect engineering and high-precision inkjet printing tech­
nificant increase in the charges on the neighboring atoms of the defec­ nology proved to be a versatile solution to improving the ethanol
tive site compared to defect-free MoS2, highlighting increased charge response and response-recovery times of 2H-MoS2 nanosheets.
density upon S-vacancy creation, which could be the reason for the
enhanced ethanol response of the defect-rich sensor in comparison to the CRediT authorship contribution statement
defect-free counterpart [84]. This aligns with existing results in the
literature [29], further corroborating our claim that low-temperature Abd El-Moniem Ahmed: Writing – review & editing, Visualization,
defect engineering creates active sites for enhanced ethanol adsorption. Validation, Supervision, Software, Project administration, Funding

10
P.C. Tagbo et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 389 (2025) 116531

acquisition, Conceptualization. Mohamed Mohamed Mokhtar: [12] A.H. Nasser, L. Guo, H. Elnaggar, Y. Wang, X. Guo, A. Abdelmoneim, N. Tsubaki,
Mn–Fe nanoparticles on a reduced graphene oxide catalyst for enhanced olefin
Writing – review & editing, Validation, Supervision. Ayad Mohamad
production from syngas in a slurry reactor, RSC Adv. 8 (2018) 14854–14863,
M.: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Supervision. Tagbo Philips [Link]
Chidubem: Writing – original draft, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data [13] Y. Han, D. Huang, Y. Ma, G. He, J. Hu, J. Zhang, N. Hu, Y. Su, Z. Zhou, Y. Zhang,
curation, Conceptualization. Z. Yang, Design of hetero-nanostructures on MoS2 nanosheets to boost NO2 room
temperature sensing, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10 (2018) 22640–22649, https://
[Link]/10.1021/acsami.8b05811.
[14] A.B. El-Basaty, E. Moustafa, A.N. Fouda, A.A. El-Moneim, 3D hierarchical
Declaration of Competing Interest
graphene/CNT with interfacial polymerized polyaniline nano-fibers, Spectrochim.
Acta A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 226 (2020) 117629, [Link]
The authors confirm that none of the work presented in this study has SAA.2019.117629.
[15] Q. Li, J. Meng, Z. Li, Recent progress on Schottky sensors based on two-
been impacted by any known conflicting financial interests or one’s
dimensional transition metal dichalcogenides, J. Mater. Chem. A Mater. 10 (2022)
relationships. 8107–8128, [Link]
[16] R. Kumar, W. Zheng, X. Liu, J. Zhang, M. Kumar, MoS2-based nanomaterials for
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Acknowledgments
10.1002/admt.201901062.
[17] A. Hermawan, N.L.W. Septiani, A. Taufik, B. Yuliarto, Suyatman, S. Yin, Advanced
The research that produced these findings was funded by the TICAD- strategies to improve performances of molybdenum-based gas sensors, Nanomicro
7 Japanese Scholarship, for which the authors are grateful. We espe­ Lett. 13 (2021), [Link]
[18] A. Kumar, M. Kumar, Recent progress in emerging two-dimensional transition-
cially want to thank the Egypt-Japan University of Science and Tech­ metal dichalcogenides based gas sensors: a review, IEEE Sens. J. (2024), https://
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Applications (ID 31306) and its lab engineer, Mr. Mohamed A. Belal, for [19] Y. Jiao, A.M. Hafez, D. Cao, A. Mukhopadhyay, Y. Ma, H. Zhu, Metallic MoS2 for
high performance energy storage and energy conversion, Small 14 (2018), https://
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edge Dr. Ahmed M. Bayoumy, who assisted with the DFT calculations for [20] Z. Qian, L. Jiao, L. Xie, Phase engineering of two-dimensional transition metal
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Magdy Mohamed Abdo in the design of the gas sensing system. [21] Z. Song, Z. Wang, R. Yu, Strategies for advanced supercapacitors based on 2D
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online version at doi:10.1016/[Link].2025.116531. [23] A.E. Rashed, A. Nasser, M.F. Elkady, Y. Matsushita, A.A. El-Moneim, Fe
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P.C. Tagbo et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 389 (2025) 116531

Philips C. Tagbo is a graduate student of Nanoscience at the Institute of Basic and Applied Mohamad M. Ayad is a professor of Physical Chemistry at the Institute of Basic and
Sciences, Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology (E-JUST). He obtained his Applied Sciences, Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology. He obtained his PhD
bachelor’s degree in physics at the University of Benin, Nigeria. His research interest spans degree from the University of Tanta and the University of Aston, UK (1986). His research
novel synthesis strategies, characterization, and applications of 2D materials. interests include the synthesis, characterization, and applications of nanostructured con­
ducting polymer and porous materials and their nanocomposites in sensors, catalysis, drug
carriers, efficient adsorbents, and energy.
Mohamed Mokhtar Mohamed is a professor of Nanoscience at the Institute of Basic and
Applied Sciences, Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology. His research activ­
ities encompass novel materials for sustainability and environmental remediation. He Ahmed Abd El-Moniem is a professor of Chemistry at the Institute of Basic and Applied
specifically focuses on photocatalysis, water remediation, water splitting, solar cells, and Sciences, Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology. He is the principal investi­
supercapacitors. gator of the Graphene Center of Excellence for Electronics and Energy Applications. He is
actively involved in research involving printed flexible electronic devices such as gas
sensors, biosensors, temperature sensors, and supercapacitors.

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