1.

FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS

ENGINEERING MECHANICS: The subject of Engineering Mechanics is that branch of

Applied Science, which deals with the laws and principles of Mechanics, along with their
applications to engineering [Link] subject of Engineering Mechanics may be divided
into the following two main groups:
1. Statics, and 2. Dynamics
STATICS: It is that branch of Engineering Mechanics, which deals with the forces and their
effects, while acting upon the bodies at rest.
DYNAMICS: It is that branch of Engineering Mechanics, which deals with the forces and their
effects, while acting upon the bodies in motion. The subject of Dynamics may be further sub-
divided into the following two branches:
1. Kinetics, and 2. Kinematics
KINETICS: It is the branch of Dynamics, which deals with the bodies in motion due to
the application of forces.
KINEMATICS: It is that branch of Dynamics, which deals with the bodies in motion,
without any reference to the forces which are responsible for the motion.
RIGID BODY: A rigid body (also known as a rigid object) is a solid body
in which deformation is zero or so small it can be neglected. The distance between any two
given points on a rigid body remains constant in time regardless of external forces exerted on
it. A rigid body is usually considered as a continuous distribution of mass.
Nobody is perfectly rigid, however rigid body is defined as a body in which particles do not
change their relative positions under the action of any force or torque. Rigid body is ideal body.
When the body does not deform under the action of A force or A torque, body is said rigid.
Particle: A particle is ideally dimensionless. But it has a very small mass.
Deformable body: When a body deforms due to A force or A torque it is said deformable
body. Material generates stresses against deformation.
FORCE: It is defined as an agent which produces or tends to produce, destroys or tends
to destroy motion. e.g., a horse applies force to pull a cart and to set it in motion. Force is also
required to work on a bicycle pump. In this case, the force is supplied by the muscular power of
our arms and shoulders.
CHARACTERISTIC OF A FORCE: In order to determine the effects of a force, acting on a
body, we must know the following characteristics of a force:
1. Magnitude of the force (i.e., 100 N, 50 N, 20 kN, 5 kN, etc.)
2. The direction of the line, along which the force acts (i.e., along OX, OY, at 30° North
ofEast etc.). It is also known as line of action of the force.
3. Nature of the force (i.e., whether the force is push or pull). This is denoted by placing
an arrowhead on the line of action of the force.
• Tensile force
• Compressive force
• Pull force
• Push force
4. The point at which (or through which) the force acts on the body
5. It is a vector quantity
 EFFECTS OF A FORCE: A force may produce the following effects in a body, on which it
acts:
1. It may change the motion of a body. i.e. if a body is at rest, the force may set it in motion.
And if the body is already in motion, the force may accelerate it.
2. It may retard the motion of a body.
3. It may retard the forces, already acting on a body, thus bringing it to rest or in equilibrium.
4. It may give rise to the internal stresses in the body, on which it acts.
SYSTEM OF FORCES: When two or more forces act on a body, they are called to
form a system of forces. Following systems of forces are important from the subject point of
view;
1. Coplanar forces: The forces, whose lines of action lie on the same plane, are known as

coplanar forces.
2. Collinear forces: The forces, whose lines of action lie on the same line, are known
as collinear forces
3. Concurrent forces: The forces, which meet at one point, are known as concurrent forces.
The concurrent forces may or may not be collinear.
4. Coplanar concurrent forces: The forces, which meet at one point and their lines of action
also lie on the same plane, are known as coplanar concurrent forces.
5. Coplanar non-concurrent forces: The forces, which do not meet at one point, but their
lines of action lie on the same plane, are known as coplanar non-concurrent forces.
6. Non-coplanar concurrent forces: The forces, which meet at one point, but their lines of
action do not lie on the same plane, are known as non-coplanar concurrent forces.
7. Non-coplanar non-concurrent forces: The forces, which do not meet at one point and
their lines of action do not lie on the same plane, are called non-coplanar non-concurrent
forces.

Principle of transmissibility:
The principle of transmissibility states that a force may be applied at any point on its given
line of action without altering the resultant effects of the force external to the rigid body on
which it acts. Thus, whenever we are interested in only the resultant external effects of a
force, the force may be treated as a sliding vector, and we need specify only the magnitude,
direction, and line of action.
 It states, “If a force acts at any point on a rigid body, it may also be considered to act at any
other point on its line of action, provided this point is rigidly connected with the body.”

Principle of superposition:
If two equal, opposite and collinear forces are added to or removed from the system of forces,
there will be no change in the position of the body. This is known as principle of superposition
of forces

Law of Gravitation:
Magnitude of gravitational force of attraction between two particles is proportional to the
product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their
centers

ACTION AND REACTION FORCE: Forces always act in pairs and always act in opposite
directions. When you push on an object, the object pushes back with an equal force. Think
of a pile of books on a table. The weight of the books exerts a downward force on the table.
This is the action force. The table exerts an equal upward force on the books. This is
the reaction force.

RESOLUTION OF A FORCE: The process of splitting up the given force into a number of
components, without changing its effect on the body is called resolution of a force. A force is,
generally, resolved along two mutually perpendicular directions. In fact, the resolution of a
force is the reverse action of the addition of the component vectors.
COMPOSITION OF FORCES: The process of finding out the resultant force, of a number
of given forces, is called composition of forces or compounding of forces.
RESULTANT FORCE: If a number of forces, P, Q, R ... etc. are acting simultaneously on a
particle, then it is possible to find out a single force which could replace them i.e., which
 would produce the same effect as produced by all the given forces. This single force is called
resultant force and the given forces R ...etc. are called component forces
PRINCIPLE OF RESOLUTION: It states, “The algebraic sum of the resolved parts of a
no. of forces, in a given direction, is equal to the resolved part of their resultant in the same
direction.”
Note: In general, the forces are resolved in the vertical and horizontal directions.

Resultant of Coplanar concurrent forces:

Resultant Force:If number of Forces acting simultaneously on a particle, it is possible to find out
a single force which could re- place them or produce the same effect as of all the given forces is
called resultant force.
Methods of Finding Resultant:
1) Parallelogram Law of Forces (For 2 Forces)
2) Triangle Law (For 2 Forces)
3) Lami‟s theorem (For 3 forces)
4) Method of resolution (For more than 2 Forces)
METHODS FOR THE RESULTANT FORCE:
Though there are many methods for finding out the resultant force of a number of given forces,
yet the following are important from the subject point of view:
1. Analytical method. 2. Method of resolution.
PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF FORCES:
It states, “If two forces, acting simultaneously on a particle, be represented in magnitude and
direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram ; their resultant may be represented in
magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram, which passes through their
point of intersection.”
Mathematically, resultant force,

LAWS FOR THE RESULTANT FORCE:

The resultant force, of a given system of forces, may also be found out by the following laws
1. Triangle law of forces. 2. Polygon law of forces.

TRIANGLE LAW OF FORCES:

It states, “If two forces acting simultaneously on a particle, be represented in magnitude and
direction by the two sides of a triangle, taken in order ; their resultant may be represented in
magnitude and direction by the third side of the triangle, taken in opposite order.”
POLYGON LAW OF FORCES:
It is an extension of Triangle Law of Forces for more than two forces, which states, “If a
number of forces acting simultaneously on a particle, be represented in magnitude and
direction, by the sides of a polygon taken in order ; then the resultant of all these forces may
be represented, in magnitude and direction, by the closing side of the polygon, taken in
opposite order.”
 METHOD OF RESOLUTION:
Resolve all the forces horizontally and find the algebraic sum of all the horizontal
components .
Resolve all the forces vertically and find the algebraic sum of all the
vertical components
The resultant R of the given forces will be given by the equation;

The resultant force will be inclined at an angle , with the horizontal, such that

GRAPHICAL (VECTOR) METHOD FOR THE RESULTANT FORCE:

It is another name for finding out the magnitude and direction of the resultant force by the
polygon law of forces. It is done as discussed below:
 Construction of space diagram (position diagram): It means the construction of a diagram
showing the various forces (or loads) along with their magnitude and lines of action.
 Use of Bow’s notations: All the forces in the space diagram are named by using the
Bow’s notations. It is a convenient method in which every force (or load) is named by
two capital letters, placed on its either side in the space diagram.
 Construction of vector diagram (force diagram): It means the construction of a diagram
starting from a convenient point and then go on adding all the forces vectorially one by one
(keeping in view the directions of the forces) to some suitable scale. Now the closing side of
the polygon, taken in opposite order, will give the magnitude of the resultant force (to the
scale) and its direction.
MOMENT OF A FORCE: It is the turning effect produced by a force, on the body, on which it
acts. The moment of a force is equal to the product of the force and the perpendicular
distance of the point, about which the moment is required and the line of action of the
force.
Mathematically, moment,
M=P×l
where P = Force acting on the body, and
l = Perpendicular distance between the point, about which the moment is required and the
line of action of the force.

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF A MOMENT: Consider a force P represented, in

magnitude and direction, by the line AB. Let O be a point, about which the moment of this
force is required to be found out, as shown in Fig. From O, draw OC perpendicular to AB.
Join OA and OB.

Now moment of the force P about O

= P × OC = AB × OC
But AB × OC is equal to twice the area of triangle ABO.
Thus the moment of a force, about any point, is equal to twice the area of the triangle,
whose base is the line to some scale representing the force and whose vertex is the point
about which the moment is taken.
UNITS OF MOMENT:
Since the moment of a force is the product of force and distance, therefore the units of the
moment will depend upon the units of force and distance. Thus, if the force is in Newton
and the distance is in meters, then the units of moment will be Newton-meter (briefly
written as N-m). Similarly, the units of moment may be kN-m (i.e. kN × m), N-mm (i.e. N ×
mm) etc.

TYPES OF MOMENTS:
Broadly speaking, the moments are of the following two types:
1. Clockwise moments. 2. Anticlockwise moments.

CLOCKWISE MOMENT:

It is the moment of a force, whose effect is to turn or rotate the body, about the point in the
same direction in which hands of a clock move as shown in Fig.

ANTICLOCKWISE MOMENT:
It is the moment of a force, whose effect is to turn or rotate the body, about the point in the
opposite direction in which the hands of a clock move as shown in Fig.(b).
Note. The general convention is to take clockwise moment as positive and anticlockwise
moment as negative.

VARIGNON’S PRINCIPLE OR LAW OF MOMENTS:

It states, “If a number of coplanar forces are acting simultaneously on a particle, the
algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces about any point is equal to the moment of
their resultant force about the same point.”

COUPLE: A pair of two equal and unlike parallel forces ([Link] equal in magnitude, with
lines of action parallel to each other and acting in opposite directions) is known
as a couple.
As a matter of fact, a couple is unable to produce any translatory motion (i.e., motion in a
straight line). But it produces a motion of rotation in the body, on which it acts. The simplest
example of a couple is the forces applied to the key of a lock, while locking or unlocking it.

ARM OF A COUPLE:
The perpendicular distance (a), between the lines of action of the two equal and opposite
parallel forces, is known as arm of the couple as shown in Fig.
 MOMENT OF A COUPLE: The moment of a couple is the product of the force (i.e., one of the
forces of the two equal and opposite parallel forces) and the arm of the couple.
Mathematically:
Moment of a couple = P × a

P = Magnitude of the force, and

where
a = Arm of the couple.

CLASSIFICATION OF COUPLES:
The couples may be, broadly, classified into the following two categories, depending upon
their direction, in which the couple tends to rotate the body, on which it acts:

1. Clockwise couple, and 2. Anticlockwise couple

CLOCKWISE COUPLE:
A couple, whose tendency is to rotate the body, on which it acts, in a clockwise direction, is
known as a clockwise couple as shown in Fig. (a). Such a couple is also called positive couple.

ANTICLOCKWISE COUPLE:
A couple, whose tendency is to rotate the body, on which it acts, in an anticlockwise
direction, is known as an anticlockwise couple as shown in Fig. (b). Such a couple is also
called a negative couple.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A COUPLE:
A couple (whether clockwise or anticlockwise) has the following characteristics:

1. The algebraic sum of the forces, constituting the couple, is zero.

2. The algebraic sum of the moments of the forces, constituting the couple, about any point
is the same, and equal to the moment of the couple itself.
3. A couple cannot be balanced by a single force. But it can be balanced only by a couple of
opposite sense.
4. Any no. of co-planer couples can be reduced to a single couple, whose magnitude will be
equal to the algebraic sum of the moments of all the couples.

EXAMPLE: A square ABCD has forces acting along its sides as shown in Fig. 4.13. Find the
values of P and Q, if the system reduces to a couple. Also find magnitude of the couple, if
the side of the square is 1 m.
 The sense of the moment M is established by the right-hand rule.

Counter clockwise couple (-) Clock wise couple(+)

The magnitude of the couple is independent of the distance.

Equivalent Couples
Changing the values of F and does not change a given couple as long as the product Fd remains the same.

A couple is not affected if the forces act in a different but parallel plane.

8
Force-CoupleSystems
The effect of a force acting on a body is:
a) The tendency to push or pull the body in the direction of the force, and
b) To rotate the body about any fixed axis which does not intersect
The line of action of the force (force does not go through the mass center of the body).
We can represent this dual effect more easily by replacing the given force by an equal parallel force and a couple to com-
pensate for the change in the moment of the force.

Also we can combine a given couple and a force which lies in the plane of the couple to produce a single, equivalent
force.

Varignon’s principle of moments:

If a number of coplanar forces are acting simultaneously on a particle, the algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces
about any point is equal to the moment of their resultant force about the same point.
Proof:
For example, consider only two forces F1 and F2 represented in magnitude and direction by AB and AC as shown in figure
below.
O C D

F2
R

A F1 B

Let be the point, about which the moments are taken. Construct the parallelogram ABCD and complete the construction
as shown in fig.
By the parallelogram law of forces, the diagonal AD represents, in magnitude and direction, the resultant of two forces
F1 and F2, let R be the resultant force.
By geometrical representation of moments
 The moment of force about O= 2 x Area of triangle AOB

9
 The moment of force about O= 2 x Area of triangle AOC
 The moment of force about O = 2 x Area of triangle AOD But,
 Area of triangle AOD = Area of triangle AOC + Area of triangle ACD
 Area of triangle ACD = Area of triangle ADB = Area of triangle AOB
 Area of triangle AOD = Area of triangle AOC + Area of triangle AOB

Multiplying throughout by 2, we obtain

2 x Area of triangle AOD= 2 x Area of triangle AOC + 2 x Area of triangle AOB

i.e. Moment of force R about O = Moment of force F1about O + Moment of force F2 about O

Example 1: - Find resultant of a force system shown in Figure

Answer:
1) Given Data
P1 = 8 kN 1  0
P2 = 10 kN
2  60
P3 = 7 kN
P4 = 5 kN 3  90
4  270  60  210
2) Summation of horizontal force
 H  P1 cos1  P2 cos2  P3 cos3  P4 cos4  8.67kN()
3) Summation of vertical force
V  P1 sin 1  P2 sin 2  P3 sin 3  P4 sin 4  13.16kN()
4) Resultant force
R   15.76kN
5) Angle of resultant

tan  V  1.518
H
  56.62

10
 Example 2 Find magnitude and direction of resultant for a concurrent force system shown in Figure

Answer
1) Summation of horizontal force
 (+Ve)  (-Ve)
∑ H = +15 Cos 15º + 100Cos (63.43)º − 80Cos20º + 100Sin30º + 75Cos45º = +87.08 kN (→ )
2) Summation of vertical force
 (+Ve)  (-Ve)
∑ V = +15 Sin 15º + 100Sin (63.43)º − 80Sin20º + 100Cos30º + 75Sin45º = −73.68 kN ( ↓ )
3) Resultant force

R  114.07kN

4) Angle of resultant

tan   0.846
H
  40.24
5) Angle of resultant with respect to positive x – axis

11
Example 3 Determine magnitude and direction of resultant force of the force system shown in fig.

Answer
12
tan    2.4   67.380
5
1) Summation of horizontal force
 (+Ve)  (-Ve)
∑ H = +50 + 100 Cos 60º − 130Cos (67.38)º + 100Cos30º + 100Cos60º = +100 N (→ )
2) Summation of vertical force
 (+Ve)  (-Ve)
∑ V = +100Sin60º + 120 + 130Sin (67.38)º − 100Sin60º − 100Sin60º = +240 N ( ↑ )
3) Resultant force

R  260N

4) Angle of resultant

tan   2.4
H
  67.38º
5) Angle of resultant with respect to positive x – axis

12
Example: 4 A system of four forces shown in Fig. has resultant 50 kN along + X - axis. Determine mag-
nitude and inclination of unknown force P.

Answer
As the R= 50N & directed along + X – axis.

 H  50N and V  0N
Now, ∑ 𝐻 = +150 + P Cos θ − 100 Sin 30° − 200 Cos 60° = 50 N
∴ P Cosθ = 50 _____________ ( 1 )
Now, ∑ V = +P Sin θ − 100 Cos 30° − 200 Sin 60° = 0
∴ P Sinθ = 86.60 _____________ ( 2 )
From Equation (1) & (2).
86.60
tan θ =
50
tan θ = 1.732
∴ θ = 60º
∴ P = 100 N

13
Example: 5 Find the magnitude of the force P, required to keep the 100 kg mass in the position by
strings as shown in the Figure

Answer:

Free Body Diagram will be as show in fig. and there are three coplanar concurrent forces which are in equili-
brium so we can apply the lami‟s theorem.
P 
Q

R
sin sin  sin 
P TAB 100
.′ . = =
Sin 150 Sin 90 Sin 120
P = 566.38 N
TAB = 1132.76 N

14
 Example: 6 A cylindrical roller 600mm diameter and weighing 1000 N is resting on a smooth inclined
surface, tied firmly by a rope AC of length 600mm as shown in fig. Find tension in rope and reaction
at B

Answer:

Free Body Diagram will be as show in fig. and there are three coplanar concurrent forces which are in equili-
brium so we can apply the lami‟s theorem.
Q R
P  
sin  sin 
sin
Tac Rb 1000
.′ . = =
Sin 120 Sin 120 Sin 120
Tac = 1000 N
RB = 1000 N

Example: 7 A boat kept in position by two ropes as shown in figure. Find the drag force on the boat.

Answer: 
According to law of parallelogram 
R    45.51N
Q sin  30sin 50   30.320
tan  
P  Q cos 20  30 cos 50

15
Example: 8 For a coplanar, non-concurrent force system shown in Fig. determine magnitude, direction
and position with reference to point A of resultant force.

Answer
To find out magnitude & direction of R
Summation of horizontal force
ΣH = +500 Sin 45º − 800Cos 30º + 1000 = +660.73 N (→)
Summation of vertical force
∑ V = −500 Cos45º + 850 + 800Sin30º = +896.45 N (↑ )
Resultant force
R  = √(660.73)2 + (896.45)2 = 1113.64 𝑁
Angle of resultant
896.45
tan θ =
660.73
∴ θ = 53.61º
Here, we have to also locate the „R‟ @ pt. A Let the „R‟ is located at a distn x from A in the horizontal direc-
tion.
Now this distn „X‟ can be achived by using varignon‟s principle.
First, Take the moment @ A of all the forces.
MALL= + (500 Sin 45° X 1.4 ) + ( 850 X 1.8 ) + ( 800 Sin 30° X 1.8 ) + 400
= + 3144.97 N-m [ ⮧ ] _____ ( 1 )
Now moment of „R‟ @ point „ A „
MR = + (R Sin 𝜃. 𝑋) = + (∑F𝑦. ) = 896.45. 𝑥 ______ (2)
(1)=(2)
896.45 X = 3144.97
X = 3.51 m

16
Example: 9 Find magnitude, direction and location of resultant of force system with respect to point
‘O’ shown in fig.

Answer
Summation of horizontal forces
𝛴𝐻 = +30 𝐶𝑜𝑠 30º − 50 + 40𝑆𝑖𝑛 45º = + 4.265 𝐾𝑁 ( →)
Summation of vertical forces
𝛴𝑉 = +30 𝑆𝑖𝑛30º + 60 − 40 𝐶𝑜𝑠 45º = +46.72 𝐾𝑁 ( ↑)
Resultant force
R  = √(4.265)2 + (46.72)2 = 46.91 𝐾𝑁
Angle of resultant
46.72
tan θ =
4.265
∴ θ = 84.78
Now,as we requred to find out the position of „R‟ with respect to the point „O‟. Take the moment of all the
forces @ point „O „ we have,
M0= +(30 Cos30° X 1) – (30 Sin30° X 1) + (60 X 2)+ (50 X 2)-(40 Cos45° X 1) + (40 Sin45° X 1)
M0= + 230.98 KN- unit ( ⮧ ) _________ (1)
Now, moment of „R‟ @ Pt. „O‟
(considering „R‟ lies at a distance x from the point „O‟ in the horizontal direction )
MR = + (R Sin𝜃 X ) = (∑Fy.x)
MR = +46.72.X ____________ (2)
According to varignon’s principle
∴ 46.72 X = 230.98
∴ X = 4.94 unit

17
 Free Body Diagrams
A free body diagram is a tool used to solve engineering mechanics problems. As the name
suggests, the purpose of the diagram is to "free" the body from all other objects and
surfaces around it so that it can be studied in isolation. We will also draw in any forces or
moments acting on the body, including those forces and moments exerted by the
surrounding bodies and surfaces that we removed.
The diagram below shows a ladder supporting a person and the free body diagram of that
ladder. As you can see, the ladder is separated from all other objects and all forces acting on
the ladder are drawn in with key dimensions and angles shown.

A ladder with a man standing on it is shown on the left. Assuming friction only at the base, a free
body diagram of the ladder is shown on the right.

Constructing the Free Body Diagram

The first step in solving most mechanics problems will be to construct a free-body diagram.
This simplified diagram will allow us to more easily write out the equilibrium equations for
statics or strengths of materials problems. To construct the diagram we will use the following
process.

1. First draw the body being analyzed, separated from all other surrounding bodies and
surfaces. Pay close attention to the boundary, identifying what is part of the body, and
what is part of the surroundings.

2. Second, draw in all external forces and moments acting directly on the body. Do not
include any forces or moments that do not directly act on the body being analyzed. Do
not include any forces that are internal to the body being analyzed. Some common types
of forces seen in mechanics problems are:
  Gravitational Forces: Unless otherwise noted, the mass of an object will result
in a gravitational weight force applied to that body. This force will always point
down towards the center of the earth and act on the center of mass of the body.

Gravitational forces always act downward on the center of mass.

Normal Forces (or Reaction Forces): Every object in direct contact with the body will
exert a normal force on that body. Note that only objects in direct contact can exert normal
forces on the body.
An object in contact with another object or surface will experience a normal force that is
perpendicular (hence normal) to the surfaces in contact.

Normal forces always act perpendicular to the surfaces in contact. The barrel in the hand
truck shown on the left has a normal force at each contact point.
Tension in Cables: Cables, wires or ropes attached to the body will exert a tension force on
the body in the direction of the cable. These forces will always pull on the body, as ropes,
cables and other flexible tethers cannot be used for pushing.

The tension force in cables always acts along the direction of the cable and will always be a
pulling force.
The above forces are the most common, but other forces such as pressure from fluids,
spring forces and magnetic forces may exist and may act on the body.
Once the forces are identified and added to the free body diagram, the last step is to label any
key dimensions and angles on the diagram.
An example for Free Body Diagram is shown below.

EQUILIBRIUM:
If the resultant of a number of forces, acting on a particle is zero, the particle will be in
equilibrium. Such a set of forces, whose resultant is zero, are called equilibrium forces.
The force, which brings the set of forces in equilibrium, is called an equilibrant.
PRINCIPLES OF EQUILIBRIUM:
Though there are many principles of equilibrium, yet the following three are important from
the subject point of view :
1. Two force principle:
As per this principle, if a body in equilibrium is acted upon by two forces, then they must be
equal, opposite and collinear.
2. Three force principle:
As per this principle, if a body in equilibrium is acted upon by three forces, then the resultant
of any two forces must be equal, opposite and collinear with the third force.
3. Four force principle:

As per this principle, if a body in equilibrium is acted upon by four forces, then the resultant of
any two forces must be equal, opposite and collinear with the resultant of the other two forces.
CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM: Equilibrium is the status of the body when it is
subjected to a system of forces. If the body is completely at rest, it necessarily means that
there is neither a resultant force nor a couple acting on it. A little consideration will show
that in this case the following conditions are already satisfied:

∑ H = 0 ∑ V = 0 and ∑ M = 0

The above mentioned three equations are known as the conditions of equilibrium. For a system
of coplanar concurrent forces for the resultant to be zero hence ∑ H = 0 ∑ V = 0
Equilibrant: Equilibrant is a single force which when added to a system of forces brings the
status of equilibrium. Hence this FORCE is of the same magnitude as the resultant but opposite in
sense. This is depicted in figure.

METHODS FOR THE EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR FORCES:

Though there are many methods of studying the equilibrium of forces, yet the following are
important from the subject point of view :
1. Analytical method. 2. Graphical method.

LAMI’S THEOREM:
It states, “If three coplanar forces acting at a point be in equilibrium, then each force is
proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two.”
Mathematically,
EXAMPLE: An electric light fixture weighting 15 N hangs from a point C, by two
strings AC and BC. The string AC is inclined at 60° to the horizontal and BC at 45° to the
horizontal as shown in Fig. Using Lami’s theorem, or otherwise, determine the force in the
strings AC.
Problem: Two identical rollers each of weight Q = 445 N are supported by an inclined plane
and a vertical wall as shown in the figure. Assuming smooth surfaces, find the reactions
induced at the points of support A, B and C.
NUMERICALS: EXAMPLE: Find the magnitude of the two forces, such that if they act at right
angles, their resultant is 10 N . But if they Act at 60°, their resultant is 13 N.

EXAMPLE: A triangle ABC has its side AB = 40 mm along positive x-axis and side
BC = 30 mm along positive y-axis. Three forces of 40 N, 50 N and 30 N act along the sides AB,
BC and CA respectively. Determine magnitude of the resultant of such a system of forces.

P
 ROBLEMS ON COPLLANAR CONCURRENT AND NON CONCURRENT FORCE SYSTEMS

Problem No 1: The forces 20 N, 30 N, 40 N, 50 N and 60 N are acting at one of the

angular points of a regular hexagon, towards the other five angular points, taken in
order. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.

The system of given forces is shown in Fig.

Problem No 2: A horizontal line PQRS is 12 m long, where PQ = QR = RS = 4 m.
Forces of 1000 N, 1500 N, 1000 N and 500 N act at P, Q, R and S respectively with
downward direction. The lines of action of these forces make angles of 90°, 60°,
45° and 30° respectively with PS. Find the magnitude, direction and position of the
resultant force
Problem No 3: ABCD is a rectangle, such that AB = CD = a and BC = DA = b. Forces
equal to P act along AD and CB and forces equal to Q act along AB and CD
respectively. Prove that the perpendicular distance between the resultants of P
and Q at A and that of P and Q at C
Problem No 4: A square ABCD has forces acting along its sides as shown in Fig.
4.13. Find the values of P and Q, if the system reduces to a couple. Also find
magnitude of the couple, if the side of the square is 1 m.

Problem No 5: A light string ABCDE whose extremity A is fixed, has weights W1

and W2 attached to it at B and C. It passes round a small smooth peg at D carrying
a weight of 300 N at the free end E as shown in Fig

If in the equilibrium position, BC is horizontal and AB and CD make 150° and 120°
with BC, find (i) Tensions in the portion AB, BC and CD of the string and (ii)
Magnitudes of W1 and W2.
Solution. Given : Weight at E = 300 N
Problem No 6: Two equal heavy spheres of 50 mm radius are in equilibrium within
a smooth cup of 150 mm radius. Show that the reaction between the cup of one
sphere is double than that between the two spheres. Solution.

Given : Radius of spheres = 50 mm and radius of the cup = 150 mm.

Problem No 7: Two cylinders P and Q rest in a channel as shown in Fig

The cylinder P has diameter of 100 mm and weighs 200 N, whereas the cylinder Q has
diameter of 180 mm and weighs 500 N

If the bottom width of the box is 180 mm, with one side vertical and the other inclined at 60°,
determine the pressures at all the four points of contact

Solution. Given : Diameter of cylinder P = 100 mm ; Weight of cylinder P = 200 N ; Diameter of cylinder Q
= 180 mm ; Weight of cylinder Q = 500 N and width of channel = 180 mm
EXAMPLE: A uniform wheel of 600 mm diameter, weighing 5 kN rests against a rigid
rectangular block of 150 mm height as shown in Fig.

Find the least pull, through the centre of the wheel, required just to turn the wheel over the
corner A of the block. Also find the reaction on the block. Take all the surfaces to be smooth.
EXAMPLE: Four forces equal to P, 2P, 3P and 4P are respectively acting along the four sides of square ABCD
taken in order. Find the magnitude, direction and position of the resultant force.

SUPPORT REACTIONS
Types of load
1) Point load
2) Uniformly distributed load
3) Uniformly varying load
Point load
 Load concentrated on a very small length compare to the length of the beam, is known as
point load or concentrated load. Point load may have any direction.
 For example truck transferring entire load of truck at 4 point of contact to the bridge is
point load.

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Uniformly distributed load
 Load spread uniformly over the length of the beam is known as uniformly distributed
load.
 Water tank resting on the beam length
 Pipe full of water in which weight of the load per unit length is constant.

Uniformly varying load

 Load in which value of the load spread over the length if uniformly increasing or
decreasing from one end to the other is known as uniformly varying load. It is also called
triangular load.

Type of beam
1) Simply supported beam
2) Cantilever beam
3) Fixed beam
4) Continuous beam
5) Propped cantilever beam
Simply supported beam
 It is the beam which is rest on the support. Here no connection between beam and
support.

Cantilever beam
 If beam has one end fixed and other end free then it is known as cantilever beam

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Fixed beam
 If both end of beam is fixed with support then it is called as fixed beam

Continuous beam
 If beam has more than two span, it is called as continuous beam

Propped cantilever beam

 If one end of beam is fixed and other is supported with prop then it is known as propped
cantilever beam.

Type of support
1) Simple support
2) Roller support
3) Hinged support
4) Fixed support
Simple support
 In this type of support beam is simply supported on the support. There is no connection
between beam and [Link] vertical reaction will be produced.

Roller support
 Here rollers are placed below beam and beam can slide over the rollers. Reaction will be
perpendicular to the surface on which rollers are supported.
 This type of support is normally provided at the end of a bridge.

Hinged support

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  Beam and support are connected by a [Link] can rotate about the hingeReaction
may be vertical, horizontal or inclined.

Fixed support
 Beam is completely fixed at end in the wall or support. Beam cannot rotate at
[Link] may be vertical, horizontal, inclined and moment.

Example 1 Find out the support reactions for the beam.

Answer:
1 )Now, Applying ∑ 𝐌 = 𝟎(⮧ +ve ⮦ -ve )
Now, Taking moment @ pt. A, we have,

+ ( 30 x 2 x 1 ) + ( 50 Sin x 2 ) – ( Rc x 4 ) = (20 x 1.5 x 4.75 ) = 0

Rc = 61.45 kN

2) Now ∑ 𝐅𝐲 = 𝟎

+ RAV - (30 X2) – (50 Sin ) +RC – (20 X 1.5 ) = 0

RAV = 71.85 kN.
3) Now, ∑ 𝐅𝐱 = 𝟎
+ RAV – ( 50 Cos )=0
RAV = 25.0 KN
RA  AV R2AH
RA = 76.08 kN
R
tan = AV
RAH
𝜃 = ( 70.81

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Example- 2 Determine the reactions at support A and B for the beam loaded as shown in figure

Answer:
The F.B.D. of the beam is shown below

1 )Applying ∑ 𝐌 = 𝟎 ⮧ + ve ⮦ -ve
Take the moment @ pt. A, we have,

+ ( 30 X 2 ) – (30) – (RB X 6 ) + (15 X 6 X 5) + ( 60 Sin 30 ) 0

RAV – 30 – ( 15 X 6 ) + RB – ( in ) 0
RB = 120 kN

2) ∑ Fy = 0
∴ RAV = 30 kN

3) ΣFy = 0

RAH – 60 Cos 0

∴ RAH = +51.96 kN

Now, RA  AV R2AH = 60 kN

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Example: 3 Calculate reactions at support due to applied load on the beam as shown in Figure

Answer:
Showing the reactions at support.

1) Applying ∑ 𝐌 = 𝟎
Take the moment @ pt. A, we have,
+ ( 10 x 3 x 1.5 ) + (60 Sin x 3) – (RC x 5 ) + (1/2 x 20 x 2 x 5.66) = 0
∴ RC = 7. 9 KN (↑ )

2) ∑ 𝐕 = 𝟎 ↑ + Ve ↓ - Ve

+ RAV – ( 10 X 3 ) – (60 Sin ) + RC – (1/2 X 20 X 2 ) = 0

Putting value of RC, we have.
RAV = 35.33 KN
3) ∑ 𝐇 = 𝟎
RAH – 60 Cos 0
RAH = 42.43 KN
Now, RA =√R2 + R2
AH AV
= √( 42 .43 )2 + ( 35.33 )2
=55.21 KN (→ )
RAV 35.33
tan θ = RAH
=
42.43

θ = ( 39.78 )º

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