Control System

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Control System: Introduction
• System: a system is a combination of components that act together
to perform an objective.
• Control System: A control system is a way to maintain or change a
specific quantity in a machine or equipment as needed.
• Another Definition: a control system is a system in which the output
quantity is controlled by varying the input quantity.

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Control System: Introduction
• Physical Model: A physical model is a representation of the
underlying hardware elements of a distributed system that abstracts
away from specific details within them.
• Mathematical Model: A mathematical model is the mathematical
representation of the physical model, through use of appropriate
physical laws.

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• CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
• Depending on the hierarchy
• Open-loop control systems
• Closed-loop control systems
• Optimal control systems: cost function is minimized
• Adaptive control systems: controller parameters are adjusted automatically
• Learning control systems: contains ability to develop the mathematical
model of the system being controlled and can modify its own operation
accordingly.

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• CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
• Depending on the presence of human
• Manually controlled systems: needs an external effort to adjust and correct
the errors
• Automatic control systems: needs no external effort

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• CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
• Depending on presence of feedback
• Open-loop control system
• Closed-loop control systems or feedback control systems

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• CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
• According to the purpose of the system
• Position control systems: output is the desired angular position of the DC
motor.
• Velocity control systems: it enables the system to respond to changing
velocity commands
• Process control systems: Process control system monitors and adjust a
process to give a desired output
• Temperature control systems: To maintain a device at a constant
temperature
• Traffic control systems, etc.

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• According to the method of analysis and
• linear control systems and
• nonlinear control systems

• Depending on whether the parameters of the system remain constant

or vary with time
• Time-varying control systems
• Time invariant control systems

• According to the types of signals used in the system

• Continuous data control systems
• discrete-data control systems

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• Depending on the number of inputs and outputs
• single-input-single-output (SISO) control systems
• multi-input-multi-output (MIMO) control systems / multi-variable systems

• Depending on the number of open-loop poles of the system transfer

function present at the origin of the s-plane
• Type-0
• Type-1
• Type-2 etc.

• Depending on the order of the differential equation used to describe

the system
• first-order control systems
• second-order control systems etc.
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• Depending on the type of damping
• Undamped systems
• Underdamped systems
• Critically damped systems
• Over-damped systems

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• Open-Loop Control Systems
• Definition: Those systems in which the output has no effect on input
are called open-loop control systems
• can be used when the relationship between the input and the
output is known

• Example-Washing Machine-soaking, washing and rinsing in the

washer operate on a time basis
• Example- Traffic Light Control System -that operates by means of
signals on a time basis

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• Block Diagram of an Open-loop System

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• Advantages of Open Loop Control System
• Open Loop Control Systems are very simple and easy to design.
• These are considerably cheaper than other types of control
systems.
• Maintenance of an open loop control system is very simple.
• These types of systems are easy to construct and are convenient
to use.

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• Disadvantages of Open Loop control System
• The bandwidth of open loop control system is less.
• The non-feedback system doesn’t facilitate the process of
automation.
• Open loop systems are inaccurate in nature and also unreliable.
• If their output is affected by some external disturbances, there is
no way to correct them automatically as these are non-feedback
systems.

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• Closed-Loop Control Systems
• Feedback control systems are often referred to as closed-loop control
systems
• Error signal is fed to the controller so as to reduce the error and bring
the output of the system to a desired value.

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• Closed-Loop Control Systems
• Example: room temperature control system

• Advantages
• Highly accurate as any error arising is corrected due to the presence
of a feedback signal.
• The bandwidth range is large.
• Facilitates automation.

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• Disadvantages of Closed Loop Control System
• They are costlier.
• They are complicated to design.
• They consume more power.
• Required more maintenance.
• Feedback leads to an oscillatory response.
• Overall gain is reduced due to the presence of feedback.

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• What is Feedback

The input-output relation of a single loop control system

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• Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain
• feedback affects the gain of a system by a factor 1/(1 -+ GH )
• G and H are functions of frequency: feedback could increase the
system gain in one frequency range but decrease it in another

• Effect of Feedback on Stability

• If GH = -1: the output of the system is infinite; system is said to be
unstable.
• GH =-1, is not the only condition for unstability

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• SERVOMECHANISM
• About feedback control systems in which the controlled variable is
mechanical position or time derivatives of position(velocity and
acceleration)

• Servo Motor
• A servo motor is a type of rotary or linear actuator that allows for
precise control of angular or linear position, velocity, and
acceleration.
• It is commonly used in various applications where precise motion
control is required.

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21
• Automatic Tank Level Control System
• The purpose of this system is to maintain the liquid level h (output ) in
the tank as close to the desired liquid level H as possible, even when
the output flow rate is varied by opening the valve V1.
• done by controlling the opening of the valve V2
• potentiometer acts as an error detector
• Slider arm A is positioned corresponding to the desired liquid level H
• The power amplifier and the motor drive form the control elements
• float forms a feedback path element

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• Working
• The liquid level is sensed by a float and it positions the slider arm B
(in the potentiometer)
• potentiometer gives an error voltage proportional to the change in
liquid level
• The error voltage actuates the motor through a power amplifier
• The output of motor drive decreases or increases the opening of the
valve V2

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• A Position Control System (DC Closed-Loop Control System)
• servosystem used to position a load shaft
• driving motor is geared to the load to be moved
• The potentiometer is used us the error detector
• The output and desired position are θC and θR
• These positions are compared by the potentiometer whose output voltage
VE is proportional to the error in angular position θE= θR - θC .
• The voltage VE is used to control the field current of a dc generator, which
supplies armature voltage to the driving motor.

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• AC Closed-Loop Control System
• The output signal θy representing the load position is applied to the
synchro control transformer
• A synchro control transformer is used in conjunction with a synchro
transmitter to act as error sensor of mechanical components
• The reference input θr representing the desired output is applied to
the synchro transmitter

• The error signal is amplified by an ac amplifier and drives the ac

servomotor which in turn positions the load through the gear box

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Error Detectors in Control System
• An error detector measures the error signal in control systems.
The error is the difference between the actual output and the desired (reference) output.
• Key Concepts:
• The desired output is kept constant as a reference.
• Any deviation from this reference creates an error signal.
• Error detectors convert this error into a form usable for control action, like voltage.

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Potentiometer Error Detector
• Working Principle:
The potentiometer consists of two identical potentiometers
connected in parallel and supplied by a voltage source.
• Input Shaft (connected to Potentiometer A) is fixed at .
• Output Shaft (connected to Potentiometer B) has position .

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Potentiometer Error Detector
• The voltage difference between the potentiometers' variable points is
proportional to the angular difference .
• The error voltage is given by: = ( − )
• Where is the gain of the error detector.
• Laplace Transform of the Error Signal:
• ( )= [Θ ( )−Θ ( )]

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Potentiometer Error Detector
• the transfer function is

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Synchro Error Detector
• A synchro transmitter and a synchro control transformer are used to
detect angular position differences and convert them into
proportional AC voltages.
• The rotor of the synchro transmitter is connected to an AC voltage
and is fixed at the desired angle (reference).

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Synchro Error Detector: Setup
• The stator windings of the synchro transmitter and control
transformer are arranged 120° apart.
• The voltage induced in the stator coils is proportional to the rotor
position.
• The system detects the angular error ( − ) between the input and
output shafts.

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Synchro Error Detector: Induced Voltages
• A single phase a.c. voltage applied to the rotor winding of the synchro
transmitter

• voltage induced by transformer section across the stator winding 1n

• K is a constant of proportionality

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Synchro Error Detector: Induced Voltages
• Now, if the rotor of the synchro transmitter shifts in anti-clockwise
direction through an angle θ, the voltages in the stator coils are

• The three voltages e1n, e2n and e3n are connected consecutively to
three stator windings of the control transformer
• induces a voltage across the rotor winding of the control transformer.
The magnitude of this induced voltage depends on the difference (θr
— θo)
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Synchro Error Detector: Induced Voltages
• If the difference (θr- θo) is zero, the induced voltage across the rotor
winding terminals of the control transformer is zero, maximum for (θ
r - θo) = 90°, and again zero when (θr - θo) = 180°

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Synchro Error Detector: Induced Voltages
• the magnitude of the output induced voltage

• Ks is a constant of proportionality, expressed in V/rad

• In control systems the angular error, i.e. (θr- θo) is usually small

Laplace transform

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• Mathematical Models of Physical Systems
• Modelling of Mechanical System Elements
• The motion of mechanical elements can be described in various
dimensions as
• Translational,
• Rotational, or
• Combination of both
• Translational systems are those in which the motion takes place
along a straight line

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• Modelling of Mechanical System Elements
• Mathematical Model: The control systems can be represented with a
set of mathematical equations known as mathematical model.
• These models are useful for design and analysis of control systems.
• Design: finding the mathematical model when we know the input and
the output.
• Analysis: finding the output when we know the input and
mathematical model.

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• Modelling of Mechanical System Elements

• The following mathematical models are mostly used.

1. Differential equation model
2. Transfer function model
3. State space model

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• Modelling of Mechanical System Elements

1. Differential Equation Model

• Differential equation model is a time domain mathematical model of
control systems.
• Steps for differential equation model.
1. Apply basic laws to the given control system.
2. Get the differential equation in terms of input and output by eliminating
the intermediate variable(s).

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• Modelling of Mechanical System Elements

• Example(Differential Equation Model)

Rearranging….

The above equation is a second

order differential equation

But we know
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• Modelling of Mechanical System Elements
2. Transfer Function Model
• An s-domain mathematical model of control systems
• The Transfer function of a Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system is defined
as the ratio of Laplace transform of output and Laplace transform of
input by assuming all the initial conditions are zero.

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• Example of Transfer Function Model
• Previously, we got the differential equation

• Apply Laplace transform on both sides

• Rearranging…

• The above equation is a transfer function of

the second order electrical system
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• Modeling of Translational Mechanical Systems
• Translational mechanical systems move along a straight line
• These systems mainly consist of three basic elements.
1. A mass,
2. A spring
3. A dashpot or damper.
• Any force is applied is opposed by opposing forces due to mass,
elasticity and friction of the system
• The algebraic sum of the forces decides the displacement

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• Basic Elements of Translational Mechanical Systems
1. Mass
• Mass is considered as a property of an element that stores the kinetic
energy of translation motion.
• If W denotes the weight of a body, the mass M is given by

• where g is the acceleration of free fall of the body due to gravity

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• Basic Elements of Translational Mechanical Systems
2. Spring
• Spring is an element, which stores potential energy.
• If a force K is applied on spring, then it is opposed by an opposing
force due to elasticity of spring.
• This opposing force is proportional to the displacement of the spring.

• F is the applied force

• Fk is the opposing force due to elasticity of spring
• K is spring constant
• x is displacement
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• Basic Elements of Translational Mechanical Systems
3. Dashpot
• If a force is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing
force due to friction of the dashpot.
• This opposing force is proportional to the velocity of the body

• Fb is the opposing force due to friction

of dashpot
• B is the frictional coefficient
• v is velocity
• x is displacement
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• Modeling of Rotational Mechanical Systems
• Rotational mechanical systems move about a fixed axis.
• These systems mainly consist of three basic elements.
1. moment of inertia,
2. torsional spring
3. dashpot.
• If a torque is applied to a rotational mechanical system, then it is
opposed by opposing torques due to moment of inertia, elasticity
and friction of the system.
• Since the applied torque and the opposing torques are in opposite
directions, the algebraic sum of torques acting on the system is zero.

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• Basic Elements of Rotational Mechanical Systems
1. Moment of Inertia
• In translational mechanical system, mass stores kinetic energy.
Similarly, in rotational mechanical system, moment of inertia stores
kinetic energy.
• If a torque is applied on a body having moment of inertia J, then it is
opposed by an opposing torque due to the moment of inertia.

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• Basic Elements of Rotational Mechanical Systems
2. Torsional Spring
• In translational mechanical system, spring stores potential energy.
Similarly, in rotational mechanical system, torsional spring stores
potential energy.
• If a torque is applied on torsional spring with constant K, then it is
opposed by an opposing torque due to the elasticity of torsional spring.
• This opposing torque is proportional to the angular displacement of the
torsional spring.

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• Basic Elements of Rotational Mechanical Systems
• Dashpot
• If a torque is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing
torque due to the rotational friction of the dashpot
• This opposing torque is proportional to the angular velocity of the
body.

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• Electrical Analogies of Mechanical Systems
• Two systems are said to be analogous to each other if the following
two conditions are satisfied.
• The two systems are physically different
• Differential equation modelling of these two systems are same
• There are two types of electrical analogies of translational
mechanical systems
• force voltage analogy
• force current analogy

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• Electrical Analogies of Mechanical Systems
• Force Voltage Analogy

The force balanced equation

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• Electrical Analogies of Mechanical Systems
• Force Voltage Analogy

• Mesh equation for this circuit is

We get the analogous quantities

of the translational mechanical
system and electrical system. 56
• Force Voltage Analogy

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• Electrical Analogies of Mechanical Systems
• Torque Voltage Analogy
• the mathematical equations of rotational mechanical system are
compared with mesh equations of the electrical system.

we get the analogous

quantities of rotational
mechanical system and
electrical system.
• torque balanced equation is

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• Electrical Analogies of Mechanical Systems
• Torque Voltage Analogy

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• Electrical Analogies of Mechanical Systems
• Force Current Analogy
• In force current analogy, the mathematical equations of the
translational mechanical system are compared with the nodal
equations of the electrical system.

Faraday's law

We get the analogous quantities of

• The nodal equation is the translational mechanical system
and electrical system. 60
• Electrical Analogies of Mechanical Systems
• Force Current Analogy

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• Electrical Analogies of Mechanical Systems
• Torque Current Analogy
• The mathematical equations of the rotational mechanical system are
compared with the nodal mesh equations of the electrical system.
• By comparing Equation of rotational mechanical system and Equation
of electrical system, we get the analogous quantities of rotational
mechanical system and electrical system.

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• Electrical Analogies of Mechanical Systems
• Torque Current Analogy

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Draw the force voltage analogous circuits for the mechanical translational system
given in Fig.
H.W.: Force Current analogy

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H.W.
Consider the mechanical system shown in Fig. Draw the force-voltage and
force-current analogous circuits

Force -Voltage 65
For the rotational mechanical system shown in Fig. draw the torque-voltage and torque-current analogous circuits

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Rules for solving the question of mechanical
systems
1. Number of nodes should be equal to number of displacements
2. Take reference node
3. Connect the mass or inertia elements between the principle node
and reference node only
4. Connect the damping elements either between principle nodes or
between the principle node and reference node
5. Connect the force or torque element at the appropriate node
6. If two displacements are present then the resultant displacement
will be “displacement at principle node at which equation is written
– displacement at the other node”
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Ques. Find the transfer function relating displacements y and x for the
mechanical system
F(t)

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Ques. Draw the mechanical circuit diagram for the system shown in Fig.
and write system equations

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Ques. Obtain a mathematical model for the mechanical system shown
in Fig.

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For the mechanical rotational system shown in Fig., find θ1/T(s)

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Consider the mechanical rotational translational system shown in Fig. Find
the T.F. relating the angular displacement of inertia J and the applied torque T
(t) and angular displacement of θ1 and T (t).

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H.W.
Consider the mechanical system shown in Fig.. The applied force f (t) is the
input and the displacement x(t) of mass M is the output variable. Obtain the T.F.

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H.W.
Consider the mechanical system shown in Fig., where all the three elements
namely mass, damper and spring are connected in cascade. Determine the T.F. with
the displacement of mass M as the output variable and force f (t) as the input variable.

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H.W.
Consider the mechanical system shown in Fig. Determine the T.F. relating the
displacement of mass M1 and the force f (t).

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H.W.
For the mechanical rotational system shown in Fig., find θ2/ T(s)

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H.W.
Consider the mechanical rotational system shown in Fig. Find the T.F. relating
the position θ4 of J2 and the input torque T (t)

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• Control Systems - Block Diagrams
• Block diagrams consist of a single block or a combination of blocks.
• These are used to represent the control systems in pictorial form.

• Basic Elements of Block Diagram

1. Block,
2. Summing point
3. Take-off point

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• Basic Elements of Block Diagram
1. Block
• The transfer function of a component is represented by a block.
• Block has single input and single output.

• Output of the block is obtained by multiplying transfer function of

the block with input

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• Basic Elements of Block Diagram
• Summing Point
• The summing point is represented with a circle having cross (X) inside
it.
• It has two or more inputs and single output.
• It performs the summation or subtraction or combination of
summation and subtraction of the inputs based on the polarity of the
inputs.

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• Take-off Point
• The take-off point is a point from which the same input signal can be
passed through more than one branch.

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• Block Diagram Representation of Electrical Systems

• By applying the Laplace transform

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H.W.
Find the T.F. of the network shown in Fig.

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H.W.
Find the T.F. of the network shown in Fig.

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H.W.
Find the T.F. of the network shown in Fig.

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• You can draw the block diagram of any electrical circuit or system just
by following this simple procedure.
1. Convert the time domain electrical circuit into an s-domain electrical circuit
by applying Laplace transform.
2. Write down the equations for the current passing through all series branch
elements and voltage across all shunt branches.
3. Draw the block diagrams for all the above equations individually.
4. Combine all these block diagrams properly in order to get the overall block
diagram of the electrical circuit (s-domain).

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• Block Diagram Algebra
• Basic Connections for Blocks: Series Connection

• where
• So

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• Block Diagram Algebra
• Basic Connections for Blocks: Parallel Connection

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• Block Diagram Algebra
• Feedback Connection

• The output of the summing point is -

• The output Y(s) is -
• So

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• Block Diagram Algebra for Summing Points
• There are two possibilities of shifting summing points with respect to
blocks −
1. Shifting summing point after the block
2. Shifting summing point before the block

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• Block Diagram Algebra for Summing Points
• Shifting Summing Point After the Block

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• Block Diagram Algebra for Summing Points
• Shifting Summing Point Before the Block

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• Block Diagram Algebra for Take-off Points
• There are two possibilities of shifting the take-off points with respect
to blocks −
1. Shifting take-off point after the block
2. Shifting take-off point before the block

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• Shifting Take-off Point After the Block

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• Shifting Take-off Point Before the Block

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• Consecutive summing points can be interchanged

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• Shifting of a take off point from a position before a summing point

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• Shifting of a take off point from a position after a summing point

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• When two or more inputs act on a system the total output is obtained
by adding the effect of each individual input separately.

102
• Block Diagram Reduction Rules
• Rule 1 − Check for the blocks connected in series and simplify.
• Rule 2 − Check for the blocks connected in parallel and simplify.
• Rule 3 − Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop and
simplify.
• Rule 4 − If there is difficulty with take-off point while simplifying, shift
it towards right.
• Rule 5 − If there is difficulty with summing point while simplifying,
shift it towards left.
• Rule 6 − Repeat the above steps ll you get the simplified form, i.e.,
single block.

103
• Nomenclature of signals

104
• Determine the transfer function C / R from the block diagram

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108
• Reduce the block diagram shown in Fig

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110
111
• H.W.
• Reduce the block diagram shown in Fig

112
• H.W.
• Reduce the block diagram shown in Fig

113
H.W.
Using block diagram reduction technique find the closed loop T.F. of the system
whose block diagram is given in Fig.

114
H.W.
Using block diagram reduction technique find the closed loop T.F. of the system
whose block diagram is given in Fig.

115
• Signal Flow Graph
• Signal flow graph is a graphical representation of algebraic equations

116
• Signal Flow Graph
• Signal flow graph is a graphical representation of algebraic equations
• Basic Elements of Signal Flow Graph
• Nodes and branches are the basic elements of signal flow graph.
• Node
• Node is a point which represents either a variable or a signal. There
are three types of nodes
• Input Node − It is a node, which has only outgoing branches.
• Output Node − It is a node, which has only incoming branches.
• Mixed Node − It is a node, which has both incoming and outgoing
branches.

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• Example

• The nodes present in this signal flow graph are y1, y2, y3 and y4.
• y1 and y4 are the input node and output node respectively.
• y2 and y3 are mixed nodes.
• Branch
• Branch is a line segment which joins two nodes. It has both gain and
direction.
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• Construction of Signal Flow Graph

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• Conversion of Block Diagrams into Signal Flow Graphs
1. Represent all the signals, variables, summing points and take-off
points of block diagram as nodes in signal flow graph.
2. Represent the blocks of block diagram as branches in signal flow
graph.
3. Represent the transfer functions inside the blocks of block diagram
as gains of the branches in signal flow graph.
4. Connect the nodes as per the block diagram. If there is connection
between two nodes (but there is no block in between), then
represent the gain of the branch as one.

120
121
• Mason's Gain Formula
• Suppose there are ‘N’ forward paths in a signal flow graph

• C(s) is the output node

• R(s) is the input node
• T is the transfer function or gain between R(s) and C(s)
• Pi is the ith forward path gain
• Graph Determinant Δ=1−(sum of all individual loop gains) +(sum of
gain products of all possible two non-touching loops) − (sum of gain
products of all possible three non-touching loops)+………..
• Δk is the path factor associated with the concerned path and involves
all closed loops in the graph which are isolated from the forward path
under consideration
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123
124
125
For the system represented by the following equations find the T.F. U/X (s) by signal flow graph technique:

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127
128
H.W.

129
H.W.

130
• Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain
• The overall gain of negative feedback closed loop control system is
the ratio of 'G' and (1+GH). So, the overall gain may increase or
decrease depending on the value of (1+GH)
• If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then the overall gain increases.
• If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then the overall gain
decreases.
• In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency. So, the feedback
will increase or decrease the overall gain of the system depending on
frequency.

131
• Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity
• Sensitivity is a measure of the dependence of a system’s
characteristics on a particular element
• Sensitivity of the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop
control system (T) to the variation in open loop gain (G) is defined as

• Where, ∂T is the incremental change in T due to incremental change

in G

• Do partial differentiation with respect to G on both sides of

132
• Sensitivity may increase or decrease depending on the value of
(1+GH)
• If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then sensitivity increases.
• If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then sensitivity decreases.
• In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency. So, feedback will
increase the sensitivity of the system gain in one frequency range and
decrease in the other frequency range

133
• Effect of Feedback on Stability
• A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control.
Otherwise, it is said to be unstable.
• if the denominator value is zero (i.e., GH = -1), then the output of the
control system will be infinite. So, the control system becomes
unstable.

• Effect of Feedback on Noise

134
• The open loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is (R(s)=0)

• Consider a closed loop control system with noise signal (R(s)=0)

• In the closed loop control system, the gain due to noise signal is
decreased by a factor of (1+GaGbH) 135
• Time Response Analysis
• Time Response: If the output of control system for an input varies
with respect to time, then it is called the time response of the control
system.
• The time response consists of two parts.
• Transient response
• Steady state response

• Transient Response: The response of the control system during the

transient state is known as transient response.
• The transient response will be zero for large values of ‘t’. Ideally, this
value of ‘t’ is infinity and practically, it is four times constant. 136
• Steady state Response: The part of the time response that remains
even after the transient time, is called the steady state response.

• Standard Test Signals

• Signals which are used to know the performance of the control
systems using time response of the output
• Unit Impulse Signal

• Unit Step Signal

137
• Unit Ramp Signal

• Unit Parabolic Signal

138
• Response of the First Order System
• Consider the following block diagram

• The power of s is one in the denominator term. Hence, the above

transfer function is of the first order and the system is said to be the
first order system

139
• steps to get the response (output) of the first order system in the
time domain.

140
• Impulse Response of First Order System
• Consider the unit impulse signal as an input to the first order system

141
• Step Response of First Order System
• Consider the unit step signal as an input to first order system

• A = 1 and B = −T, put the values of A,B

142
• Time Constant
• The magnitude of the output time response equals 0.632 unit (63.2%) in time T
(one time constant) and approximately 0.98 unit (98%) in 4T.
• The time 4T is the basis of demarcation between the transient part and the
steady state part of the time response of a control system.
• steady state: When the actual output reaches within 2% of the desired value it is
said that steady state has reached.
• settling time: The time 4T is termed as settling time (ts) of a control system.
• Lower the time constant faster is the time response
of a control system

143
• Ramp Response of First Order System

Taking Laplace

• A = 1, B = −T and C=T2 the output velocity matches with the

input velocity but lags behind the
input by a positional error of T unit.
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• output time response also follows the same sequence as that of
input functions

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• TIME RESPONSE OF A SECOND ORDER CONTROL SYSTEM
• Definition: the highest power of s in the denominator of its transfer
function equals 2.

• Time response of a second order control system subjected to unit

step input function
• output

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Here
As

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in

as
=0
Undamped Response of Second Order Control System

We know
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Overdamped Response of Second Order Control System

Taking -𝜔 common in denominator

We know

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Two time constants are
The larger one is effective

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Overall response

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In general: The rise time is the time needed for the response to reach from 10% to 90%
of the desired value of the output.
For Under Damped System: It is the time required for the response to rise from 0% to
100% of its final value. 161
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• Maximum Overshoot refers to the highest peak of the system's response curve beyond
its steady-state value during the transient phase, as a result of a step input.

• The time needed to reach the maximum overshoot is called peak time and denoted as
tp.
• Mp occurs when the slope of the time response curve is zero.

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We know

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Peak time occurs at n=1

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We know

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Time constant is defined as the time taken for the transient response to reach 63.2%
of its final value for the first time.

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• The settling time ( ) for an underdamped response of a second-order control
system is the time required for the system's response to stay within a specific
percentage (commonly 2% or 5 % ) of its final value.

• On 5% basis the settling time for a second order control system is approximately
three times the time constant

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The time taken for the response to complete one cycle of the damped
oscillation

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