WIRELESS CHANNELS

• Mobile Radio Propagation: Large scale path loss

• Free Space Propagation Model
• Basic Propagation mechanisms
• Reflection
• Diffraction
• Scattering
• Path loss models
• Outdoor and Indoor propagation models
• Link Budget design
• Small scale path loss -Types of small scale fading
• Fading effects due to Multipath time delay spread
• Fading effects due to Multipath time Doppler spread.
 Mobile Radio Propagation- Large scale path loss

Mobile Radio Channel Characteristics:

Unlike wired channels, radio channels are random and unpredictable.
Channel performance is impacted by obstacles (e.g., buildings, foliage) and mobility,
which causes signal fading.
Wave Propagation Mechanisms:
Electromagnetic waves undergo reflection, diffraction, and scattering.
In urban environments, absence of line-of-sight and presence of high-rise buildings lead
to severe diffraction and multipath propagation.
Multipath and Fading:
Signals reach the receiver via multiple paths of different lengths, causing multipath
fading due to wave interference.
Small movements of the mobile device can cause significant fluctuations in received
signal strength.
 Mobile Radio Propagation- Large scale path loss

Types of Propagation Models:

Large-Scale Propagation Models:
Predict mean received signal strength over large distances (hundreds to thousands
of meters).
Useful for estimating radio coverage.
Small-Scale (Fading) Models:
Capture rapid signal variations over short distances (a few wavelengths).
Fluctuations can reach 30–40 dB over just a fraction of a wavelength.
Often modeled using Rayleigh fading for non-line-of-sight scenarios.

Large-scale models average measurements over distances of 1–10 meters (at 1–2 GHz
frequencies).
Mobile Radio Propagation- Large scale path loss
Illustrates small-scale fading and
the slower large-scale variations
for an indoor radio communication
system.
The signal fades rapidly as the
receiver moves, but the local
average signal changes
much more slowly with distance.
Large-scale propagation and
methods used to predict received
power in mobile communication
systems.
Small-scale fading models and
describes methods to measure and
model multipath in the mobile radio
environment.
 Free Space Propagation Model
• Predicts received signal strength when the transmitter and receiver have a clear line-of-
sight (LOS).
• Common in satellite communications and microwave LOS links.
• Large-scale radio wave propagation models, the free space model predicts that received
power decays as a function of the T-R separation distance raised to some power (i.e. a
power law function).
• The free space power received by a receiver antenna which is separated from a radiating
transmitter antenna by a distance d, is given by the Friis free space equation,
Pt is the transmitted power,
Pr(d) is the received power which is a function of the T-R separation,
Gt is the transmitter antenna gain,
Gr is the receiver antenna gain,
d is the T-R separation distance in meters,
L is the system loss factor not related to propagation (L ≥ 1)
λ is the wavelength in meters
 Free Space Propagation Model
• The gain of an antenna is related to its effective aperture, Ae by

• The effective aperture is related to the physical size of the antenna, and
• λ is related to the carrier frequency by

• where f is the carrier frequency in Hertz,

• wc is the carrier frequency in radians per second, and
• c is the speed of light given in meters/s.
• The values for Pt and Pr must be expressed in the same units, and
• G1 and G2 are dimensionless quantities.
• The miscellaneous losses L (L≥1) are usually due to transmission line attenuation,
filter losses, and antenna losses in the communication system.
• A value of L = I indicates no loss in the system hardware.
 Free Space Propagation Model
• Received power decreases with distance as 1/d2 -> 20dB/decade
• An isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna which radiates power with unit gain uniformly in
all directions, and is often used to reference antenna gains in wireless systems. (0dBi)
• The effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is defined as

• It represents the maximum radiated power available from a transmitter in the direction of
maximum antenna gain, as compared to an isotropic radiator.
• In practice, effective radiated power (ERP) is used instead of EIRP to denote the maximum
radiated power as compared to a half-wave dipole antenna (instead of an isotropic
antenna)
• Since a dipole antenna has a gain of 1.64 (2.15 dB above an isotrope)
• ERP=EIRP−2.15 dB
 Free Space Propagation Model
• The path loss, which represents signal attenuation as a positive quantity measured in dB,
is defined as the difference (in dB) between the effective transmitted power and the
received power, and may or may not include the effect of the antenna gains.
• The path loss for the free space model when antenna gains are included is given by

• When antenna gains are excluded, the antennas are assumed to have unity gain,and path
loss is given by

• The Friis free space model is only a valid predictor for Pr for values of d which are in the
far-field of the 'transmitting antenna.
 Free Space Propagation Model
• The far-field, or Fraunhofer region, of a transmitting antenna is defined as the region
beyond the farfield distance df, which is related to the largest linear dimension of the
transmitter antenna aperture and the carrier wavelength.
• The Fraunhofer distance is given by

• D is the largest physical linear dimension of the antenna.

• Additionally, to be in the far-field region, df must satisfy df >> D and df >> λ
• the received power in free space at a distance greater than d0
The reference distance d0 for
practical systems using low-
gain antennas in the 1-2 GHz
region is typically chosen to be 1 m
in indoor environments and
100m or 1 km in outdoor
environments
 Basic Propagation mechanisms
• Mobile signal propagation is influenced by three primary mechanisms
Reflection
Occurs when: The wave encounters objects much larger than its wavelength.
Common reflectors: Ground, walls, buildings, etc.
Effect: The wave bounces back from the surface, leading to multiple signal paths
Diffraction
Occurs when: A wave encounters a sharp edge or obstacle that partially blocks the path.
Result: Waves bend around obstacles, allowing signal reception even without a direct line-of-sight
Depends on:
Geometry of the obstructing object
Amplitude, phase, and polarization of the incident wave
Important at high frequencies
Scattering
Occurs when: The medium contains many small objects relative to the wavelength.
Sources: Foliage, lamp posts, signs, rough surfaces, etc.
Effect: Incident wave energy is dispersed in multiple directions
Mechanisms affect received power, path loss, and signal reliability and Large-scale propagation
models use them to estimate received power
 Reflection
Reflection
• Occurs when: The wave encounters objects much larger than its wavelength.
• Common reflectors: Ground, walls, buildings, etc.
• Effect: The wave bounces back from the surface, leading to multiple signal paths
Basic Reflection Concepts:
• When a radio wave encounters a boundary between two media with different electrical
properties, it is partially reflected and partially transmitted.
• For a perfect dielectric, no energy is lost; some is reflected, and some is transmitted.
• For a perfect conductor, all energy is reflected.
• The Fresnel reflection coefficient (Γ) relates incident, reflected, and transmitted field
strengths and depends on wave polarization, incident angle, and material properties.
Polarization and Superposition:
• Electromagnetic (EM) waves are generally polarized, often broken down into vertical and
horizontal (or circular) components.
• Reflection problems can be solved using superposition of these two orthogonal polarizations.
 Reflection from Dielectrics
Electromagnetic wave incident at an angle with
the plane of the boundary between two
dielectric media.
From figure, part of the energy is reflected back
to the first media at an angle and part of the
energy is transmitted (refracted) into the second
media at an angle
The nature of reflection varies with the direction
of polarization of the E-field
The plane of incidence is defined as
the plane containing the incident, reflected,
and transmitted rays
the E-field polarization is parallel with the plane of incidence (that is, the E-field has a
vertical polarization, or normal component, with respect to the reflecting surface)
 Reflection from Dielectrics

the E-field polarization is perpendicular to the plane of incidence

 Reflection from Dielectrics
Parameters ɛ1, µ1, σ1. , and ɛ2, µ2, σ2, represent the permittivity, permeability, and conductance
of the two media, respectively

The dielectric constant of a perfect (lossless) dielectric is related to a relative value of

permittivity,
ɛ = ɛ 0 ɛr where ɛ0 is a constant given by 8.85 x 10-12 F/m.

If a dielectric material is lossy, it will absorb power and may be described by a complex
dielectric constant given by

σ is the conductivity of the material measured in Siemens/meter.

The terms ɛr and σ are generally insensitive to operating frequency when the material is a
good conductor (f < σ / (ɛ0 ɛr))
 Reflection from Dielectrics
For lossy dielectrics, ɛ0 and ɛr are generally constant with frequency, but σ may be
sensitive to the operating frequency,
 Reflection from Dielectrics
The reflection coefficients for the two cases of parallel and perpendicular E-field
polarization at the boundary of two dielectrics are given by
 Reflection from Dielectrics
For the case of elliptical polarized waves, the wave may be broken down
(depolarized) into its vertical and horizontal E-field components, and superposition
may be applied to determine transmitted and reflected waves.
In the general case of reflection or transmission, the horizontal and vertical axes of the
spatial coordinates may not coincide with the perpendicular and parallel axes of the
propagating waves.
An angle θ measured counter-clockwise from the horizontal axis is defined as shown in
Fig.

The vertical and horizontal field components at a dielectric boundary may be related by
 Reflection from Dielectrics
The vertical and horizontal field components at a dielectric boundary may be related by

horizontally and vertically polarized

components of the incident wave

R is a transformation matrix which maps vertical and horizontal polarized components to

components which are perpendicular and parallel to the plane of incidence.
The matrix R is given by
where θ is the angle between the two sets of axes

The depolarization matrix DC is given by

 Brewster Angle
• The Brewster angle is the angle at which no reflection occurs in the medium of origin.
• It occurs when the incident angle θB is such that the reflection coefficient ΓII is equal to zero.
The Brewster angle is given by the

• For the case when the first medium is free space and the second medium has a relative
permittivity ɛr can be expressed as

Note that the Brewster angle occurs only for vertical (i.e. parallel) polarization.
 Reflection from Perfect Conductors
• Electromagnetic energy cannot pass through a perfect conductor a plane wave incident on
a conductor has all of its energy reflected.
• As the electric field at the surface of the conductor must be equal to zero at all times in
order to obey Maxwell's equations
• For the case when E-field polarization is in the plane of incidence, the boundary conditions
require that θi = θr and
Ei = Er
• Similarly, for the case when the E-field is horizontally polarized, the boundary conditions
require that θi = θr and
Ei = - Er
• For a perfect conductor,
• In most mobile communication systems, the maximum T-R separation distance is at most
only a few tens of kilometers, and the earth may be assumed to be flat.
• The total received E-field, ETOT, is then a result of the direct line-of-sight component,
ELOS, and the ground reflected component, Eg.
• ht, is the height of the transmitter and hr is the height of the receiver.
• If E0 is the free space E-field (in units of V/rn) at a reference distance d0 from the
transmitter,
• then for d > d0 the free space propagating E-field is given by
• The E-field due to the line-of-sight component at the receiver can be
expressed as

• E-fleld for the ground reflected wave, which has a propagation distanceof d",
can be expressed as

• According to laws of reflection in dielectrics θi = θ0

• For small values of θi, the reflected wave is equal in magnitude and 180° out of
phase with the incident wave
• The resultant E-field, assuming perfect ground reflection (i.e., Γ = —1 and Et= 0)
is the vector sum of ELOS
• the resultant total E-field envelope is given by
• Using the method of images, the path difference ∆ the line-of-sight and the
ground reflected paths can be expressed as
• Once the path difference is known, the phase difference between θ∆ the two
E field components and the time delay τd between the arrival of the two
components can be easily computed using the following relations

• It should be noted that as d becomes large, the difference between the

distances d' and d’’ becomes very small, and the amplitudes of ELOS and Eg
are virtually identical and differ only in phase. That is
• at t=d’’/c
 Received E-field

received power at a distance d

from the transmitter
 Diffraction
Occurs when: A wave encounters a sharp edge or obstacle that partially blocks the path.
Result: Waves bend around obstacles, allowing signal reception even without a direct line-of-sight
Depends on:
Geometry of the obstructing object
Amplitude, phase, and polarization of the incident wave
Important at high frequencies
Diffraction enables radio signals to:
Travel beyond the horizon.
Propagate around obstacles and curved surfaces of the Earth.
Even in shadowed (obstructed) regions:
The signal weakens but can still be strong enough to be useful.
Huygen's Principle explains diffraction:
Every point on a wavefront acts as a source of secondary wavelets.
These wavelets combine to form a new wavefront in the direction of propagation.
The strength of the diffracted field in shadowed regions:
Determined by the vector sum of electric field components from all secondary wavelets
around the obstacle.
 Diffraction
Fresnel Zone Geometry
 Diffraction
• In free space, when a screen of height h obstructs the direct path between a transmitter and
receiver:
• The screen has infinite width and is placed at distances d₁ (from transmitter) and d₂ (from
receiver).
• The signal must diffract over the top of the screen, resulting in a longer travel path than the
direct line-of-sight (LOS) path.
• This additional distance traveled is called the excess path length (Δ).
• Assumptions: h is much smaller than d₁, d₂, and the wavelength λ.
• Excess path length (Δ) is derived from the geometry and quantifies the difference between
the direct LOS and the diffracted path from figure b
 Diffraction
Fresnel Zone Geometry
 Diffraction
Fresnel Zone Geometry
 Diffraction
Fresnel Zone Geometry

• Fresrtel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter v which is given by

• The phase difference between a direct LOS path and a diffracted path depends on:
• The height and position of the obstruction.
• The locations of the transmitter and receiver.
• To simplify diffraction geometry, all heights can be reduced by a constant without altering the
angles—useful for practical analysis. (figure c)
 Diffraction
Fresnel Zone Geometry

• .
 Diffraction
Fresnel Zone Geometry
• Fresnel zones describe regions where the path length differs from the LOS path by multiples
of λ/2 (half-wavelength).
• Each Fresnel zone contributes constructive or destructive interference to the received signal.
• The radius of the nth Fresnel zone circle is denoted by rn and can be expressed in terms of n, λ,
d1, and d2 by

• The n-th Fresnel zone adds a path length of nλ/2.

• The Fresnel zones of Figure 3.11 have maximum radii if the plane is midway between the
transmitter and receiver, and the radii become smaller when the plane is moved towards
either the transmitter or the receiver.
• This effect illustrates how shadowing is sensitive to the frequency as well as the location of
obstructions with relation to the transmitter or receiver.
 Diffraction
Fresnel Zone Geometry
• Diffraction loss occurs when obstructions block Fresnel zones.
• Only unblocked zones contribute to received signal (via secondary wavelets).
• The total received energy is a vector sum of contributions from all unobstructed Fresnel
zones.
• To minimize diffraction loss:
• Keep at least 55% of the first Fresnel zone clear.
• Further clearing beyond this yields negligible improvement in signal strength.
 Diffraction
Knife-Edge Diffraction Model
• Used to estimate signal attenuation caused by diffraction over obstacles (e.g., hills, buildings)
in wireless systems.
• Essential for predicting field strength in shadowed service areas.
• Exact estimation is difficult due to complex terrain.
• Knife-edge model is a simplified theoretical approach for:
• Single obstructions like hills or mountains.
• Approximating diffraction losses using Fresnel theory.
• The obstacle is modeled as a sharp "knife edge" (i.e., a thin, idealized object).
• Field strength at a receiver in the shadowed region is a vector sum of secondary wavelets
from Huygen’s sources above the knife edge.
 Diffraction
Knife-Edge Diffraction Model
• The electric field strength, Ed. of a knife-edge diffracted wave is given by

• E0 is the free space field strength in the absence of both the ground and the knife edge, and F
(v) is the complex Fresnel integral.
• The Fresnel integral, F(v),is a function of the Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter v
• The diffraction gain due to the presence of a knife edge, as compared to the free space E-field,
is given by
 Diffraction
Multiple Knife-edge Diffraction
• In real-world environments (especially hilly terrain), radio waves often encounter multiple
obstructions along the path.
• Each obstacle contributes to the total diffraction loss.
• Bullington (1947) proposed:
• Replace multiple obstacles with a single equivalent knife-edge.
• Apply the single knife-edge model to estimate total diffraction loss.
• Advantage:
• Simple and quick to apply.
• Limitation:
• Tends to underestimate actual loss.
• Provides overly optimistic signal strength predictions
Millington et al. (1962) developed:
A wave-theory-based solution for two knife-edges in series.
More accurate than Bullington’s method.
Limitation:
Not easily extended to more than two knife-edges due to mathematical complexity
 Diffraction
Multiple Knife-edge Diffraction

• .
Scattering
Scattering
 Link Budget Design using Path Loss Models
• Most radio propagation models combine analytical and empirical methods.
• Empirical Models:
• Based on measured field data.
• Fit curves/expressions to actual measurements.
• Advantage: Accounts for all propagation effects (known and unknown).
• Limitation: Not always valid for different frequencies or environments without new data.
• Classical Models:
Developed over time and used for large-scale coverage prediction in mobile system
design.
• Path Loss Models:
• Estimate received signal level vs. distance.
• Allow prediction of Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR).
• Noise floor can be calculated using noise analysis
 Log-distance Path Loss Model
• Theoretical and Measurement-based propagation models indicate that average
received signal power decreases logarithmically with distance
• The average large-scale path loss for an arbitrary T-R separation is expressed as a
function of distance by using a path loss exponent,
denote the ensemble average of
all possible path loss values for a given
value of d.

n - the path loss exponent which indicates the rate at which the path loss increases with
distance
d₀ - the close-in reference distance which is determined from measurements close to the
transmitter
d- T-R separation distance
 Log-distance Path Loss Model
• When plotted on a log-log scale, the modeled path loss is a straight line with a slope equal
to 10n dB per decade.
• The value of n depends on the specific propagation environment.
• For example, in free space, n is equal to 2, and when obstructions are present, n will have
a larger value.
• It is important to select a free space reference distance that is appropriate for the
propagation environment.
• In large coverage cellular systems, 1 km reference distances are commonly used
• In microcellular systems, much smaller distances (such as 100 m or 1 m) are used.
• The reference distance should always be in the far field of the antenna so that near-field
effects do not alter the reference path loss.
• The reference path loss is calculated using the free space path joss formula given by
equation

or through field measurements at distance d0

 Log-normal Shadowing
• Log-distance Path Loss Model
• Does not account for environmental variation at same T-R distance.
• Real-world measurements show large fluctuations due to clutter
Log-Normal Shadowing:
• Path loss PL(d) at a given location is randomly distributed around the mean value.
• This variation follows a log-normal distribution (normal in dB scale).
 Log-normal Shadowing
• Shadowing causes random signal variation even at same distance d.
• This is due to different levels of clutter on various paths.
• The close-in reference distance d0, the path loss exponent n, and the standard deviation σ,
statistically describe the path loss model for an arbitrary location having a specific T-R
separation, and
• this model may be used in computer simulation to provide received power levels for random
locations in communication system design and analysis.
• the values of n and σ are computed from measured data, using linear regression such that
the difference between the measured and estimated path losses is minimized in a mean
square error sense over a wide range of measurement locations and T-R separation
Log-normal Shadowing
 Determination of Percentage of Coverage Area
• Due to random shadowing effects, some parts of a coverage area may experience signal
levels below a desired threshold.
• To evaluate service quality, it's useful to determine how coverage at the boundary
correlates with the percentage of the total area receiving adequate signal strength.
• Coverage Model: For a circular area with radius R, we define a received signal threshold ϒ.
• Useful Service Area, U(ϒ): This is the percentage of area where the received signal is ≥ ϒ.
• U(ϒ) depends on the probability that the received power at a distance d=r from the
transmitter exceeds y, accounting for shadow fading.
• It can be shown that if Pr (r) [Pr (r) > ϒ ] is the probability that the random received signal
at d = r exceeds the threshold y within an incremental area dA , then U (y)
Determination of Percentage of Coverage Area
Determination of Percentage of Coverage Area
Determination of Percentage of Coverage Area
 Outdoor Propagation Model
• In mobile communication systems, radio transmission often occurs over irregular terrain,
which significantly affects signal propagation.
• Terrain profiles can range from simple (e.g., curved earth) to complex (e.g., mountainous
regions).
• Obstacles like buildings, trees, and other structures must also be considered for accurate
path loss estimation.
• Various propagation models are used to predict path loss in such environments.
• These models aim to estimate signal strength at specific receiver locations or sectors.
• The models differ in approach, complexity, and accuracy, and are typically developed based
on empirical measurement data from the actual service area.
 Durkin’s Model – A Case Study in Terrain-Based Path
Loss Prediction
• Durkin’s model is a classical, terrain-based propagation prediction method similar to the
Longley-Rice model, developed for estimating large-scale path loss in mobile radio systems.
• It was implemented by the Joint Radio Committee (JRC) in the UK to predict field strength
contours over irregular terrain.
• Two-Part Simulation:
• Terrain Profile Reconstruction:
• Utilizes a topographic database (Digital Elevation Model - DEM).
• Reconstructs ground profile along the radial from transmitter to receiver using
diagonal, vertical, and horizontal interpolation.
• Assumes all energy is received along a single radial (no multipath).
• Path Loss Calculation:
• Determines Line-of-Sight (LOS) existence and checks Fresnel zone clearance.
• Calculates received signal strength using free space and plane earth propagation
models.
• For obstructed paths, diffraction loss is added using knife-edge diffraction models
 Durkin’s Model – A Case Study in Terrain-Based Path
Loss Prediction
• Each array element corresponds to a
point on a service area map while the
actual contents of each array element
contain the elevation above sea level
data as shown in Figure 3.
• These types of digital elevation models
(DEM) are readily available from the
United States Geological Survey
(USGS). Illustration of a two-dimensional array of
• Using this quantized map of service elevation information
area heights, the program reconstructs
the ground profile along the radial that
joins the transmitter and the receiver
 Durkin’s Model – A Case Study in Terrain-Based Path
Loss Prediction
 the radial between the transmitter and
receiver, and the points with which to
use diagonal linear interpolation
 The radial path between the transmitter
and receiver is reconstructed using
interpolation, since it often doesn't pass
through exact data points.
 The final elevation at each point along
the radial is the average of all three
interpolations(Diagonal, Vertical and
Horizontal) for accuracy
 This reconstruction produces a one-
dimensional terrain profile, reducing
the problem to a standard point-to-point
path loss calculation.

Knife-edge diffraction techniques are used to compute the path loss over the reconstructed terrain.
Durkin’s Model – A Case Study in Terrain-Based Path
Loss Prediction The first step is to decide
whether a line-of-sight
(LOS) path exists between
the transmitter and the
receiver
Computes the difference δj
between the height of the
line joining the transmitter
and receiver antennas from
the height of the ground
profile for each point along
the radial
If any δj is found to be
positive, LOS path does not
exist, otherwise it can be
LOS path exists
 Durkin’s Model – A Case Study in Terrain-Based Path
Loss Prediction
• If the first Fresnel zone of the radio path is unobstructed, then the resulting loss mechanism is
approximately that of free space.
• If there is an obstruction that just barely touches the line joining the transmitter and the
receiver then the signal strength at the receiver is 6dB less than the free space value due to
energy diffracting off the obstruction and away from the receiver
• If LOS exists, checks if the first Fresnel zone is clear using diffraction parameter v:
• If v ≤ -0.8 for all terrain points, free space loss is used.
• Otherwise, extra diffraction loss is computed and added to the received power.

• If the terrain profile failed the first Fresnel zone test (i.e. any v > -0.8) , then there are
two possibilities:
• a) Non-LOS
• b) LOS, but with inadequate first Fresnel-zone clearance
 Durkin’s Model – A Case Study in Terrain-Based Path
Loss Prediction
For the case of non-LOS, the system grades the problem into one of four categories:
• a) Single diffraction edge b) Two diffraction edges c) Three diffraction edges
• d) More than three diffraction edges
 Durkin’s Model – A Case Study in Terrain-Based Path
Loss Prediction
1. Single Diffraction Edge:
• Detected by finding the maximum angle between:
• Receiver and each point on terrain.
• Then from transmitter to each point.
• If both maximum angles occur at the same location, it's modeled as a single edge.
• Fresnel parameter (v) is calculated, and the diffraction loss is added to the higher of:
• Free space loss or
• Plane earth loss.
2. Two Diffraction Edges:
• Detected if two obstacles are visible to each other.
• Loss is calculated using the Epstein-Peterson method, which adds:
• Loss at second edge (caused by the first).
• Loss at receiver (caused by second edge).
 Durkin’s Model – A Case Study in Terrain-Based Path
Loss Prediction
3. Three Diffraction Edges:
• Confirmed if a third obstacle exists between two outer diffraction edges and intersects the line joining
them.
• Also uses Epstein-Peterson method for total loss estimation.
4. More Than Three Diffraction Edges:
• The terrain between the two outermost obstacles is approximated as a virtual knife-edge, reducing the
problem to a three-edge calculation.
Advantages:
• Uses digital elevation data for accurate terrain modeling.
• Generates site-specific signal strength contours.
• Effective for planning wireless networks over irregular terrain.
Limitations:
• Ignores effects from foliage, buildings, and multipath (except ground reflection).
• Often requires additional correction factors for real-world accuracy.
 Okumura Model
• Okumura’s model is a widely used empirical model for predicting signal path loss in urban areas,
particularly for cellular and land mobile radio systems.
• Applicability : Frequency range: 150 MHz – 1920 MHz (extrapolated up to 3000 MHz)
Distance range: 1 km – 100 km
Base station height (hte): 30 m – 1000 m
Mobile antenna height (hre): Around 3 m (standard)
• To determine path loss using Okumura's model, the free space path loss between the points of
interest is first determined, and then the value of Amu(f, d) (as read from the curves) is added to it
along with correction factors to account for the type of terrain.
• The model can be expressed as

• L50 is the 50th percentile (i.e., median) value of propagation path loss,
• LF is the free space propagation loss
• Amu is the median attenuation relative to free space
• G(hte) is the base station antenna height gain factor,
• G(hre) is the mobile antenna height gain factor, and
• GAREA is the gain due to the type of environment.
• Note that the antenna height gains are strictly a function of height and have nothing to do with antenna patterns.
Okumura Model
 Okumura Model
 Based entirely on measured data using
vertical omnidirectional antennas.
 Measurement-based curves are used to
obtain:
o A_mu(f, d): Based on frequency and
distance
o G_AREA: Based on terrain/environment
Strengths:
 Additional correction factors may be applied
 High accuracy in urban and suburban environments. for:
 Standard model for system planning in Japan. o Terrain undulation height (Δh)
 Simple and practical, especially for cluttered areas o Isolated ridge height
Limitations: o Terrain slope
 No analytical basis — entirely empirical. o Land-sea mix
 Slow response to rapid terrain changes.
 Not ideal for rural or highly variable terrain.
 Standard deviation of prediction error: ±10–14 dB
 Indoor Propagation Models
• With the rise of Personal Communication Systems (PCS), indoor radio propagation has become
an important area of study due to its distinct characteristics compared to outdoor
environments.
Key Differences from Outdoor Propagation:
• Shorter distances between transmitter and receiver.
• Higher environmental variability over small spatial changes.
• Greater sensitivity to building features and materials.
Factors Affecting Indoor Propagation:
• Building layout and materials (walls, partitions, doors).
• Type of building (residential, office, industrial).
• Antenna placement: At desk level vs. ceiling-mounted yields very different results.
• Obstructions like doors (open vs. closed) cause significant variation.
• Near-field effects are more common due to shorter distances
 Indoor Propagation Models
Propagation Mechanisms:
• Same as outdoor:
• Reflection, diffraction, and scattering
• More unpredictable indoors due to clutter and non-uniform layouts.

Research History:
• Indoor propagation studies began in the early 1980s.
• Notable early researchers:
• Cox (AT&T Bell Labs)
• Alexander (British Telecom)
• Comprehensive literature surveys available

Classification of Indoor Channels:

• LOS (Line-of-Sight)
• OBS (Obstructed) — with varying degrees of clutter
 Indoor Propagation Models - Partition Losses (same floor)
• Effect of Building Partitions on Indoor Propagation
• Buildings contain various partitions and obstacles that significantly affect indoor signal
propagation.
Typical Construction Differences:
• Houses:
• Use wood frame partitions with plasterboard for walls.
• Floors are often made of wood or non-reinforced concrete.
• Office Buildings:
• Use open-plan layouts with movable partitions.
• Floors are typically metal-reinforced concrete.
Types of Partitions:
• Hard Partitions: Fixed and structural (part of the building).
• Soft Partitions: Movable, do not reach the ceiling, and are non-structural.
Key Challenges:
Wide variability in the physical and electrical properties of partitions.
This variability makes it difficult to apply a single general model for all indoor environments.
Research Insight:
Researchers have compiled large databases of measured losses for model development.
 Indoor Propagation Models - Partition Losses between Floors
• Floor-to-Floor Signal Attenuation in Buildings
• Signal loss between floors depends on:
• Building dimensions
• Construction materials
• Floor structure
• External surroundings
• Window characteristics (e.g., number, presence of tinting)
• Tinted windows can further attenuate radio signals due to their energy-absorbing properties.
• Studies (e.g., [Sei92a], [Sei92b]) show that:
• The first floor separation causes the largest attenuation.
• Each additional floor adds less incremental attenuation than the first.
• .
 Indoor Propagation Models - Log-distance Path Loss Model
Indoor path loss has been shown by many researchers to obey the distance power law in
equation.

where the value of n depends on the surroundings and building type, and
Xσ represents a normal random variable in dB having a standard deviation of a dB.
The above equation is identical in form to the log-normal shadowing
 Small Scale Fading
• Small-scale fading refers to rapid fluctuations in the amplitude of a radio signal.
• Occurs over short time periods or travel distances.
• Caused by interference between multiple versions of the transmitted signal
which arrive at the receiver at slightly different times.
• The interfering versions are called multipath waves and combine at the receiver
antenna to form the final received signal.
• Resultant signal at the receiver can vary widely in:
• Amplitude
• Phase
• Variation depends on:
• Intensity distribution of the multipath components
• Relative propagation delays
• Signal bandwidth
 Small Scale Fading
• Three major effects of multipath:
• Rapid signal strength changes over small movements.
• Random frequency modulation from Doppler shifts.
• Time dispersion due to delays (echo effects).
• Urban fading is common due to:
• Mobile antennas being below rooftop level.
• Lack of clear line-of-sight (LOS) to the base station.
• Even with LOS, reflections still cause multipath.
• Radio waves arrive:
• From various directions and with different delays, phases, and amplitudes.
• These components combine vectorially at the receiver antenna, causing:
• Distortion or deep fades
 Small Scale Fading
• Fading may still occur even if the receiver is stationary, caused by moving
objects in the environment.
• Deep fades can be mitigated by passing vehicles or people
• If only the mobile moves: fading is spatial.
• Receiver experiences temporal variations as it moves through space.
• At high speeds, multiple fades can occur within seconds.
• Receiver in a deep fade leads to communication difficulty.
• Antenna space diversity can prevent deep fading nulls
• Due to the relative motion between the mobile and the base station, each
multipath wave experiences an apparent shift in frequency.
• The shift in received signal frequency due to motion is called the Doppler shift,
and is directly proportional to the velocity and direction of motion of the mobile
with respect to the direction of arrival of the received multipath wave.
 Factors Influencing Small Scale Fading
• Multipath Propagation:
• Multiple reflected/scattered signals arrive at different times.
• Causes fluctuations in signal strength and possible distortion.
• Speed of the Mobile:
• Affects Doppler shift of each path.
• Varies the modulation and fading rate.
• Speed of Surrounding Objects:
• Moving objects also cause Doppler spread.
• Can dominate over mobile’s own motion.
• Transmission Bandwidth:
• Wideband signals may distort, but don’t fade rapidly.
• Narrowband signals fade more, but with less distortion.
• Governed by channel’s coherence bandwidth
 Doppler Shift
• Mobile moving at a constant velocity v
• A path segment having length d between X and Y
• Receives signals from a remote source S
• The difference in path lengths traveled by the wave
from source S to the mobile at points X and Y
∆l = dcosθ = v∆tcosθ
• ∆t is the time required for the mobile to travel from X
to Y, and
• The phase change in the received signal due to the
difference in path lengths

• Hence, the apparent change in frequency, or Doppler

Illustration of Doppler effect. shift, is given by fd

 Positive shift: moving toward the signal source.

 Negative shift: moving away from the source
 Types of Small Scale Fading
• Small-scale fading depends on:
• Nature of the transmitted signal with respect to characteristics of the propagation channel
• Signal parameters:
• Bandwidth
• Symbol period
• Channel parameters:
• RMS delay spread
• Doppler spread
• Signal type and velocity influence fading behavior
• Two main channel effects:
• Time dispersion (caused by multipath delay spread)
• Frequency dispersion (caused by Doppler spread)
Types of Small Scale Fading
 Fading Effects Due to Multipath time Delay Spread
• Time dispersion due to multipath causes the transmitted signal to undergo
either flat or frequency selective fading.
Flat Fading
• Occurs when:
• Channel has constant gain and linear phase across the signal bandwidth
• Signal bandwidth < channel coherence bandwidth
• Spectral shape of transmitted signal is preserved at the receiver
• No frequency distortion
• However the strength of the received signal changes with time, due to fluctuations in the gain
of the channel caused by multipath.
• If the channel gain changes over time, a change of amplitude occurs in the received signal.
• Over time, the received signal r (t) varies in gain, but the spectrum of the transmission is
preserved.
 Fading Effects Due to Multipath lime Delay Spread
Flat Fading

Flat fading channel characteristics.

 Fading Effects Due to Multipath lime Delay Spread
Flat Fading
• In a flat fading channel, the reciprocal bandwidth of the transmitted signal is much larger than
the multipath time delay spread of the channel, and
• hb(t, τ) can be approximated as having no excess delay
• Flat fading channels are also known as amplitude varying channels and also called
narrowband channels, since the bandwidth of the applied signal is narrow
• Causes deep fades — severe signal strength drops
• To maintain low bit error rate: May require 20–30 dB additional transmitter power during
fades
• System must be designed to combat power variation
• Rayleigh Distribution is most commonly used model:
• Models the probability distribution of signal amplitude
• Assumes no dominant LOS path
• A signal undergoes flat fading
• when: Bs < Bc (signal bandwidth ≪ coherence bandwidth)
• and Ts >> στ (Reciprocal bandwidth >> RMS delay spread )
 Fading Effects Due to Multipath lime Delay Spread
Frequency Selective Fading
• Occurs when:
• Signal bandwidth Bs > Channel coherence bandwidth Bc and appears non-uniform
across frequency
• Caused by multipath delay spread exceeding reciprocal of signal bandwidth
• Channel has: Constant gain and linear phase only over small portion of signal
bandwidth
• Impulse response has a Multipath delayed spread
• The received signal includes multiple versions of the transmitted waveform
which are attenuated (faded) and delayed in time, and hence the received signal
is distorted.
• Frequency selective fading is due to time dispersion of the transmitted symbols
within the channel.
• Thus the channel induces intersymbol interference (ISI)
 Fading Effects Due to Multipath lime Delay Spread
Frequency Selective Fading
• More complex than flat fading
• Treated as linear filters
• Modeled using:
• 2-ray Rayleigh model
• Measured impulse responses
• Computer-generated delay profiles
 Fading Effects Due to Multipath lime Delay Spread
Frequency Selective Fading
 Fading Effects Due to Multipath lime Delay Spread
Frequency Selective Fading
• the spectrum S(f) of the transmitted signal has a bandwidth which is greater
than the coherence bandwidth Bc of the channel.
• In frequency domain, the channel becomes frequency selective, where the gain
is different for different frequency components
• Frequency selective fading is caused by multipath delay & which approach or
exceed the symbol period of the transmitted symbol.
• Frequency selective fading channels are also known as wideband channels since
the bandwidth of the signal s(t) is wider than the bandwidth of the channel
impulse response.
• As time varies, the channel varies in gain and phase across the spectrum of s(t),
resulting in time varying distortion in the received signal r(t).
 Fading Effects Due to Multipath lime Delay Spread
Frequency Selective Fading
• To summarize, a signal undergoes frequency selective fading if
• Bs > Bc (signal bandwidth > coherence bandwidth)
• Ts < στ (Reciprocal bandwidth < RMS delay spread )

• A common rule of thumb is that a channel is frequency selective if

although this is dependent on the specific type of modulation used.
 Fading Effects Due to Doppler Spread
• Caused by relative motion between transmitter, receiver, or objects
• Leads to:
• Doppler spread
• Frequency dispersion
• Results in Time Selective Fading
• Two types based on signal vs. channel rate of change:
• Fast Fading
• Slow Fading
Fast Fading
• Occurs when:
• Channel changes rapidly within a single symbol period
• Channel coherence time Tc​ < symbol period Ts
• Caused by high Doppler spread
 Fading Effects Due to Doppler Spread
Fast Fading
• Channel impulse response varies within one symbol
• Leads to signal distortion
• Viewed in frequency domain:
• Wider Doppler spread → more distortion
• Occurs typically in:
• Low data rate systems or
• High mobility scenarios
A signal undergoes fast fading if:
 Tc​: Coherence time
 Ts: Symbol period
and  BD: Doppler spread
 Bs: Signal bandwidth
 Fading Effects Due to Doppler Spread
Fast Fading

• Fast fading only deals with the rate of change of the channel due to motion
• Flat, Fast Fading:
• Impulse response ≈ delta function - in which the amplitude of the delta function
varies faster than the rate of change of the transmitted baseband signal
• Frequency Selective, Fast Fading:
• Multipath components vary in time, phase, and delay
• Fading type and rate are independent
• In practice, fast fading only occurs for very low data rates
 Fading Effects Due to Doppler Spread
• Slow Fading:
• Channel impulse response changes at a rate much slower than the transmitted
baseband signal s(t)
• Coherence time Tc​ > symbol period Ts
• Channel is quasi-static over several symbols
• In the frequency domain, the Doppler spread of the channel is much less than
the bandwidth of the baseband signal.
• Therefore, a signal undergoes slow fading if
and
• It should be clear that the velocity of the mobile (or velocity of objects in the
channel) and the baseband signaling determines whether a signal undergoes
fast fading or slow fading
Matrix illustrating type of fading
experienced by a signal as a function of
(a) symbol period
(b) baseband signal bandwidth.