UNIVERSITY OF SAINT ANTHONY

(Dr. Santiago G. Ortega Memorial)

City of Iriga

COLLEGE OF HEALTH CARE EDUCATION

The Role of Sanitation Education: Promoting Health and Safety in Rural

Areas of Barangay Tambo, Buhi

An Undergraduate Thesis
Presented to
The Faculty of College of Health Care Education
University of Saint Anthony
Iriga City

In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirement for the Degree
Bachelor of Science in Nursing

COLINARES, EUELLA S.
CUNANAN, ALYSSA A.
DAVA, JHOMELA S.
DELA CRUZ, JUSTIN T.
ENRIQUEZ, LEA H.
FAJARDO, CARLA MAE M.

2025

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 UNIVERSITY OF SAINT ANTHONY
(Dr. Santiago G. Ortega Memorial)
City of Iriga

COLLEGE OF HEALTH CARE EDUCATION

Assumption of Study

The research study is anchored on the assumption that:

1. The respondents possess sufficient knowledge of proper sanitation and

awareness of basic hygiene.

2. The researchers would be able to explain the education of safety

practices of sanitation education.

3. There are environmental and Socioeconomic factors influence to

nursing students’ sanitation practices within the community.

4. The educational services improved proper sanitation promotion in the

community.

Null Hypothesis
H0: Sanitation education has no significant effect on the health and safety
of residents in rural areas of Barangay Tambo, Buhi.

Scope and Delimitation

This study is designed to evaluate and determine the role of sanitation

education in promotion of health and safety among the residents of Barangay

Tambo, Buhi, Camarines Sur. It aims to explore the frequently encountered

challenges in preserving health and safety within their homes and neighborhood

as well as the methods they utilize sanitation knowledge in their everyday

practices, encompassing personal cleanliness, garbage disposal, and safe water

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(Dr. Santiago G. Ortega Memorial)
City of Iriga

COLLEGE OF HEALTH CARE EDUCATION

consumption. The study also seeks to establish if there is a meaningful

connection between resident’s sanitation education levels and their health and

safety behaviors. Information will be obtained via surveys and interviews with

chosen residents along with a review of recent community health records, with

data collection taking place during the current school year to accurately represent

the most recent situation in the barangay.

Significance of the Study

The research considered this study as beneficial to the following:

Residents. This research may help the residents through educating

them on proper sanitation practices. Through this Sanitation Education, residents

may benefit directly from increased awareness, healthier practices, and reduced

risk of sanitation-related diseases.

Local Health Workers. This study may help local health workers by

providing insights into the sanitation practices and health challenges within

Barangay Tambo, allowing them to design more effective and targeted education

campaigns. It supports their efforts to prevent disease, promote hygiene, and

strengthen community health through informed, culturally relevant interventions.

Barangay. This study may benefit the barangay by providing a clearer

understanding of local sanitation challenges and guiding the development of

more effective health and safety programs. It supports barangay officials in

creating informed policies, improving waste management practices, and fostering

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(Dr. Santiago G. Ortega Memorial)
City of Iriga

COLLEGE OF HEALTH CARE EDUCATION

a healthier environment for all residents. Through education and community

engagement, the barangay can strengthen its role in promoting public health and

sustainable living.

Researchers. This study may benefit researchers by contributing

valuable data and insights into the role of sanitation education in improving

community health outcomes. It offers a localized perspective that can support

comparative studies, inform future public health research, and inspire evidence-

based interventions in similar rural settings. By documenting the challenges and

successes in Barangay Tambo, the study enriches the academic discourse on

sanitation, education, and grassroots health promotion.

Future Researchers. This study may benefit future researchers by

serving as a foundational reference for exploring the impact of sanitation

education in rural communities. It provides localized data, practical insights, and

methodological approaches that can guide similar investigations in public health,

environmental management, and community development. By highlighting both

challenges and effective strategies in Barangay Tambo, the study opens

pathways for deeper inquiry and innovation in promoting health and safety

through education.

Definition of Terms
For the purpose of the clarity and consistency, the following terms were
defined conceptually and operationally as used in this study.
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(Dr. Santiago G. Ortega Memorial)
City of Iriga

COLLEGE OF HEALTH CARE EDUCATION

Sanitation Education. Proper hygiene practices including personal

hygiene, clean water access to reduce diseases and promote health. In this
study, residents can improve sanitation education in various population.
Health Promotion. Process that aimed to prevent diseases encouraging
healthy lifestyle and improve health. In this study, understanding of health
promotion process which provide enhancement hygiene practices and maintain
healthier lifestyle.
WASH ( Water, Sanitation and Hygiene). Integrated approach to
ensuring access to clean water, proper sanitation facilities and hygiene practices.
Potable Water. Purified from harmful contaminants and microorganisms
that could pose health risk. It is water used for drinking and cooking.
Waterborne diseases. A disease resulting from drinking water that is
contaminated by bacteria, viruses and parasites.

Review of Related Literature and Studies

This section of the study comprises the literature and studies, including

ideas, methods, implications, and generalizations, that are similar to the current

study. These will support familiarization of key concepts and ideas for the

researchers to further develop the study.

Freeman (2021) outlined that water, sanitation, and hygiene to health is

critical to agenda-setting and innovation. Based on their research, they found that

better delivery results and quantifiable health impacts can be achieved through

clarifying the study objectives, standardizing process documentation, using

behavioral theory, and employing adaptive design approaches. Additionally, they

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(Dr. Santiago G. Ortega Memorial)
City of Iriga

COLLEGE OF HEALTH CARE EDUCATION

recognized the different developmental results, such as decreased respiratory

diseases, tropical diseases, and better mental health, that can be realized by

focusing on implementation, functionality, and accessibility.

Research led by Tchouchu & Ahenkan (2023) entitled "Towards a

successful implementation of environmental sanitation policy in Ghana: An

assessment of key impeding factors" has pinpointed various problems that

discourage effective ESPI implementation in Ghana such as strategies

implemented by the government, community representation, as well as a

widespread lack of community interest in sanitation programs. Based on their

investigation, they propose that ESPI's failure can be primarily blamed on a

government strategy as well as widespread community indifference to

maintaining a hygienic environment. To be successful, it is critical that citizens

value health and hygiene more, with their government improving institutional

forms and redesigning how it develops policies. In their aim to discover strategies

to enhance sanitation practices execution improvement in among rurally located

areas, they conduct their investigation.

Bazaanah and Mothapo (2023) highlight the critical need for improved

infrastructure and repairs, while also emphasizing the impact of sanitation and

water availability on rural livelihoods. Their research indicates that the allocation

of water and sanitation resources within communities is shaped by factors such

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(Dr. Santiago G. Ortega Memorial)
City of Iriga

COLLEGE OF HEALTH CARE EDUCATION

as household structure, gender dynamics, and trends in population growth. When

facilities experience overutilization, the financial burden of services becomes

prohibitive for low-income individuals, resulting in women assuming the

responsibility for domestic water storage and hygiene maintenance. The study

contends that water scarcity will adversely affect individuals' livelihoods and

overall well-being, advocating for initiatives such as bulk water delivery,

investment in facilities, and the mitigation of water pollution stemming from

sewage systems, mining activities, agrochemicals, and industrial waste.

The study “The effects of racism, social exclusion, and discrimination on

achieving universal safe water and sanitation in high-income countries”

concludes that due to systemic injustices, racial prejudice insecurity about

housing, migration, climate change, inadequate investment, and poor planning,

high-income nations experience substantial health and health inequities in

drinking sanitation and water supply services. Regardless of characteristics like

ethnic background, racial background, or property rights, these problems require

a systems approach, easily accessible data, innovative approaches to service

delivery, and workable legislation.

According to Okafor, Ude & Eromonsele (2024) in “Safe drinking water:

the need and challenges in developing countries”, a healthy society depends on

having access to safe drinking water, however 1.1 million people globally still do

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(Dr. Santiago G. Ortega Memorial)
City of Iriga

COLLEGE OF HEALTH CARE EDUCATION

not have this luxury. It boosts a nation's GDP by offering a range of services to

both people and the environment. Access to clean drinking water is difficult to

come by in poor nations, though, because of problems with the environment,

society, economy, and sanitation. It is essential to address these issues in order

to advance human growth.

While controlling viral infections like cholera, particularly among

susceptible groups, requires sustainable environmental cleanliness. Akinrinde

(2022) concludes that sustainable WASH services and legislation to regulate

waste disposal can be beneficial. To increase cholera control and health in

Nigeria, the government should look for financing from intergovernmental

organizations and work together with CBOs and NGOs for promotion of health

and awareness initiatives.

In the study “Interventions promoting uptake of water, sanitation and

hygiene (WASH) technologies in low‐ and middle‐income countries: An evidence

and gap map of effectiveness studies” by Chirgwin. Caimcross &

Waddington(2021), every year, 1.6 million people die from a lack of having

access to and use of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH), with 1.2 million of

those fatalities being attributable to serious respiratory illnesses like pneumonia

and gastrointestinal disorders like diarrhea. Inadequate WASH also reduces

educational achievement and nutrition, and puts vulnerable groups—particularly

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(Dr. Santiago G. Ortega Memorial)
City of Iriga

COLLEGE OF HEALTH CARE EDUCATION

women and girls—in danger and stresses them out. This study is beneficial to

support corresponding methods to achieve success of the current study about

WASH practices.

This study about “Factors related to the functionality of community-based

rural water supply and sanitation program in Indonesia” of Djono & Iswarani

(2022) concludes that using 28,936 data, the study examined the variables

influencing the operation of Indonesia's community-owned rural drinking water

supply and sanitation program (PAMSIMAS). The system's functionality is largely

predicted by geography, management, and investment per capita, according to

the results. System failure was linked to geographic location, social relationships,

and the absence of a payment system. Functionality was also associated with

high female participation. To reduce project failures in developing nations, the

report recommends better measuring and monitoring mechanisms for systems

that are only partially operational.

Rajapakse & Danso (2023) states that the best proactive management

technique to stop drinking water pollution is the Water Safety Planning (WSP)

tool. It ensures clean and safe water by keeping an eye on the whole supply of

water structure, from catchment to user. In 2004, WSP was suggested by the

World Health Organization to preserve public health. A detailed method for

creating and executing a Web Service Provide has been released.

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(Dr. Santiago G. Ortega Memorial)
City of Iriga

COLLEGE OF HEALTH CARE EDUCATION

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According to Alum, Obeagu & Ugwu (2024), over 90% of baby deaths in

underdeveloped nations are due to diarrhea, making it a serious global health

concern. Its prevalence is exacerbated by inadequate diet, poor water quality,

and inadequate sanitation. Although South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa lack

adequate facilities, the UN Sustainable Development Goals seek to minimize

premature deaths among newborns and infants under five by 2030. They

concluded that reducing malnutrition, ending poverty, and safeguarding the

environment all depend on improving sanitation, hygiene, and water quality.

According to the study involving 56 department heads and 662 personnel

from selected Philippine cities and municipalities examined government

organizational practices. Results show that transparency in decision-making,

procurement, and access to public information is generally rated “high”, reflecting

strong accountability. Statistical tests (Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis)

revealed no significant difference in transparency for decision-making and

access to information. However, there was a significant difference in

procurement transparency practices.

The paper explores the relationship between governance quality and local

development in the Philippines following the 1991 fiscal decentralization policy.

While decentralization enabled innovations in service delivery, financing, and

civic participation, progress has been uneven. Genuine participation in mandated

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City of Iriga

COLLEGE OF HEALTH CARE EDUCATION

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local bodies remains limited, and regional development imbalances persist due to

varying governance quality. Poor areas, in particular, face a cycle of poverty and

weak governance. The study suggests that initial economic conditions shape the

level of acceptable governance, which explains the disparity across regions.

Policy recommendations are proposed to strengthen local governance and

promote more balanced development.

According to the study examined "water, sanitation, and hygiene" (WASH)

practices in the Philippines, focusing on their link to childhood diarrhoea and the

cultural and environmental factors shaping defecation and anal cleansing in

Northern Mindanao. Using data from the 2008 Philippine Demographic and

Health Survey and logistic regression, WASH practices were not found to have a

statistically significant impact on diarrhoea once socioeconomic and other factors

were controlled. Qualitative findings from focus group discussions revealed that

inadequate, unsafe, and uncomfortable sanitation facilities limited proper hygiene

practices. Behaviours were largely shaped by habit, feelings of disgust, and

environmental constraints, with water preferred for anal cleansing where

available. The study highlights the importance of combining national-level data

with local insights to design effective, culturally appropriate sanitation

interventions.

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(Dr. Santiago G. Ortega Memorial)
City of Iriga

COLLEGE OF HEALTH CARE EDUCATION

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According to the study of examined the health sanitation conditions of

selected indigenous peoples’ (IPs) communities in Southern Philippines, focusing

on their access to sanitary facilities. Using both quantitative and qualitative

methods with triangulation for data reliability, the research found that while IP

communities had some access to sanitary facilities, availability and maintenance

remained inadequate. These limitations created sanitation-related challenges

that affected community well-being. The findings highlight gaps in government

efforts and the need for improved access and sustainability of sanitation services

in indigenous communities.

The research explored the health realities of an Indigenous People (IP)

community in Panabo City, Davao del Norte, with the aim of promoting Basic

Health Science Education (HSE). Using a modified WASH questionnaire,

findings showed that IPs in Barangay Lower Panaga had adopted improved

knowledge, attitudes, and practices in water, sanitation, solid waste, and

hygiene, influenced by their interaction with non-IP populations. However, gaps

remained, particularly in awareness of government health programs and

continued reliance on traditional practices that often led to poor health outcomes.

Financial instability also limited their access to better health services. The study

emphasizes the need for educational and policy interventions to support IP

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(Dr. Santiago G. Ortega Memorial)
City of Iriga

COLLEGE OF HEALTH CARE EDUCATION

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communities, especially in Geographically Isolated and Disadvantaged Areas

(GIDAs), by improving health literacy and access to government programs.

The UN-Water GLAAS report is one of three global UN reports on water,

sanitation, and hygiene (WASH). This analysis focused on hygiene promotion

data from the 2012 edition. Findings reveal that hygiene promotion receives low

priority in implementation, with existing staff meeting only 40% of the needed

workforce to achieve national targets. While governments claim that 60% of

populations are reached by hygiene messages, actual estimates suggest only

about 10% coverage due to insufficient promoters. Major challenges include lack

of human resources, funds, strategies, coordination, and monitoring. The report

highlights the poor working conditions and low recognition of hygiene promoters,

mostly women, who are essential to public health. It emphasizes the urgent need

to strengthen capacity and support for hygiene promotion in developing

countries.

The paper examines urban water governance in the Philippines,

highlighting existing policies and legal frameworks related to domestic urban

water management. It reviews the roles of various actors, institutions, and

stakeholders involved in governance. Using a synthesis integrative review and

policy-capacity analysis, it recommends strategies such as capacity-building,

epistemic governance, and hydrosolidarity to strengthen governance practices.

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City of Iriga

COLLEGE OF HEALTH CARE EDUCATION

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Finally, it stresses the need to review and reform legal foundations and

institutional functions, suggesting that jurisdictional authority be clearly assigned

to specialized agencies for more effective urban domestic water governance.

Achieving citywide inclusive sanitation in developing countries requires

strategic sanitation planning (SSA) that offers diverse solutions tailored to

different urban contexts. However, planning often uses a “one-size-fits-all”

approach. Structured decision making (SDM) can improve trade-off analysis but

depends on having appropriate sanitation options, especially since conventional

sewer systems are often unsuitable. New technologies (e.g., container-based

sanitation) improve sustainability but add complexity to planning. A review of 15

SSA frameworks revealed a lack of systematic tools to identify and evaluate

options across sustainability criteria. The study proposes eight qualities for future

tools: comprehensive, automated, systematic, flexible, sustainability-oriented,

contextualized, participatory, and uncertainty-aware, to better address sanitation

challenges and innovations.

The study assessed the achievement of national and global WASH targets

at the local level in selected areas of the Davao region, Philippines. Using a

modified tool based on national and global guidelines, household surveys

revealed that access to improved drinking water sources and sanitary toilets fell

below targets in most barangays. Discrepancies were also found between

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(Dr. Santiago G. Ortega Memorial)
City of Iriga

COLLEGE OF HEALTH CARE EDUCATION

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validated data and reported figures on water and sanitation access. While 87.5%

of households had handwashing facilities, only 51.2% had both water and soap

available. The study concludes that gaps in monitoring, worsened by the

decentralized health system, hinder progress toward WASH targets. It

recommends standardizing indicators and optimizing assessment tools to

generate reliable local data aligned with national and global standards. This can

guide policy development and prioritization of WASH service delivery.

According to the study of examined city wide sanitation planning in

developing countries through case studies in Indonesia, the Philippines, and

Malaysia. It found that outcomes were often unsuccessful because planning

approaches relied on invalid assumptions. The paper argues that instead of

emphasizing overly comprehensive and rigid planning, sanitation programs

should prioritize flexibility, continuous learning, and strategic incentives. Success

requires tighter planning-action cycles, testing assumptions, and understanding

political and economic contexts. Moreover, funding should focus on measurable

outcomes rather than inputs. By doing so, urban sanitation efforts can move

away from procedural steps and achieve more effective sanitation improvements.

Synthesis of the Art

For the current study, the authors explore the substantial impact of

sanitation education to promote health and safety, most especially among rural

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(Dr. Santiago G. Ortega Memorial)
City of Iriga

COLLEGE OF HEALTH CARE EDUCATION

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communities such as Barangay Tambo, Buhi, Camarines Sur. Interconnections

between water, sanitation, hygiene (WASH) and public health have been highly

documented with Freeman (2021) emphasizing that sustained improvements to

health can be achieved with conjoining behavioral theory, flexible design, and

standardized protocols in sanitation programs. However, despite the global

recognition regarding the importance of WASH, communities even to date still

face systemic barriers that hinder effective implementation and access.

Results yielded by various research activities reveal a complex set of

barriers and opportunities. Tchouchu and Ahenkan (2023) highlight inefficient

governmental strategies and low community participation as barriers to

successful sanitation policy implementation in Ghana, yet deficiencies in

infrastructure and gender-related problems with rural water management are

cited by Bazaanah and Mothopo (2023). These complications are also evident

within Djono and Iswarani's (2022) Indonesian-based work linking operational

efficiency of systems with geographical parameters, investment tiers, and social

interaction. At the same time, within high-income countries, ongoing issues with

racism, marginalization, and inefficient urban design remain causes for ongoing

inequalities in water access, as recent scholarly discussion suggests. Greater

impacts relating to a lack of sanitation—ranging from increased disease

presence to reduced school and economic possibilities—are continually noted

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(Dr. Santiago G. Ortega Memorial)
City of Iriga

COLLEGE OF HEALTH CARE EDUCATION

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with studies such as Chirgwin et al. (2021) and Okafor et al. (2024) supporting a

pressing importance relating to inclusive and properly financed WASH projects.

Overall, these pieces necessitate a multi-sector approach focused on

community engagement, investment in infrastructure, and policy development.

On their own, sanitation access improvement and education have been

determined to positively affect physical health but also to benefit mental health

support, gender equity, and environmental protection. Based on these reflections

then, the current inquiry attempts to add to these conclusions by posing a

question concerning how specialty sanitation education from Barangay Tambo

can be replicated as a model for strengthening grassroots communities and

addressing historic shortages in public health infrastructure.

Research Gap
This Research has a title of "The Role of Sanitation Education: Promoting Health

and Safety in Rural Areas of Barangay Tambo, Buhi" That focuses on the

Barangay Tambo, Buhi specifically, making it unclear whether national/regional

findings generalize to this barangay’s social, economic, and environmental

reality. The aim of this study is to fill the gap of sanitation education that improves

knowledge and sometimes practices in rural communities, yet there is limited

context-specific evidence from Barangay Tambo, Buhi on how educational

interventions interact with local cultural norms, infrastructure constraints, and

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(Dr. Santiago G. Ortega Memorial)
City of Iriga

COLLEGE OF HEALTH CARE EDUCATION

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seasonal livelihoods to produce sustained health and safety outcomes. In short:

we know education helps, but we don’t know how, for whom, for how long, and

under what local conditions it delivers measurable public-health gains in this

specific community.

NOTES

¹Alum, E. U., Obeagu, E. I., & Ugwu, O. P. (2024). Enhancing quality

water, good sanitation, and proper hygiene is the panacea to diarrhea control
and the attainment of some related sustainable development goals: A review.
Medicine, 103(38), e39578. [Link]

²Bazaanah, P., & Mothapo, R. A. (2023). Sustainability of drinking water

and sanitation delivery systems in rural communities of the Lepelle Nkumpi Local
Municipality, South Africa. Environment Development and Sustainability, 26(6),
14223–14255. [Link]

³Brown, J., Acey, C. S., Anthonj, C., Barrington, D. J., Beal, C. D.,
Capone, D., Cumming, O., Pullen Fedinick, K., MacDonald Gibson, J., Hicks, B.,
Kozubik, M., Lakatosova, N., Linden, K. G., Love, N. G., Mattos, K. J., Murphy,
H. M., & Winkler, I. T. (2023). The effects of racism, social exclusion, and
discrimination on achieving universal safe water and sanitation in high-income
countries. The Lancet. Global health, 11(4), e606–e614.
[Link]

⁴Chirgwin, H., Cairncross, S., Zehra, D., & Waddington, H. S. (2021).

Interventions promoting uptake of water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH)

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City of Iriga

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technologies in low‐ and middle‐income countries: An evidence and gap map of

effectiveness studies. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 17(4).
[Link]

⁵Daniel, D., Djono, T. P. A., & Iswarani, W. P. (2022). Factors related to

the functionality of community-based rural water supply and sanitation program in
Indonesia. Geography and Sustainability, 4(1), 29–38.
[Link]

⁶DOH - IMPLEMENTING RULES AND REGULATIONS OF CHAPTER VI

— “SCHOOL SANITATION AND HEALTH SERVICES” OF THE CODE ON
SANITATION OF THE PHILIPPINES (P.D. 856) - Supreme Court E-Library.
(n.d.). [Link]

⁷Haque, S. S., & Freeman, M. C. (2021). The Applications of

Implementation Science in Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) research and
practice. Environmental Health Perspectives, 129(6).
[Link]

⁸Health Sanitation: Access to Sanitary Facilities of the Indigenous

Peoples’Communities in Southern Philippines Joy C. Calva#1 Rebino B.
Batoto*2

[Link]

⁹Indigenous Water, Sanitation and Hygienic (WaSH) Practices: The Case

of the IP Community in Barangay Lower Panaga, Panabo, Philippines Sabar G.
Hasan, Jevannel G. Borlio, Junard P. Duterte [Link]

¹⁰Mariam, O. O., Kaosarat, O. T., Victor, O. P., Sandra, A. O., Makinde,

A., Rasaq, K. O., Patience, O. O., Afeez, B. O., Adekunle, O., & Akinrinde, B.
(2022). Cholera scourge in Nigeria: Promoting environmental sanitation practice

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to achieving good health for all. Journal of Infectious Diseases and Epidemiology,
8(1). [Link]

¹¹Okafor, C. O., Ude, U. I., Okoh, F. N., & Eromonsele, B. O. (2024). Safe
drinking water: the need and challenges in developing countries. In IntechOpen
eBooks. [Link]

¹²PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NO. 856 - CODE ON SANITATION -

Supreme Court E-Library. (n.d.).
[Link]

¹³Rajapakse, J., Otoo, M., & Danso, G. (2023). Progress in delivering

SDG6: Safe water and sanitation. Cambridge Prisms Water, 1.
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¹⁴Senate Bill No. 2125 - AN ACT PROVIDING A FRAMEWORK FOR

NATIONAL SUSTAINABLE SANITATION

PROGRAM, PROVIDING FUNDS THEREFOR AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES -

Senate of the Philippines: LEGISLATIVE DIGITAL SOURCES.(n.d.).
[Link]

¹⁵Senate Bill No. 2216 DEPARTMENT OF WATER, IRRIGATION,

SEWAGE, AND SANITATION RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ACT - Senate of the
Philippines 20th Congress. (n.d.). [Link]
2216-17th-congress-republic

¹⁶Tchouchu, E., & Ahenkan, A. (2023). Towards a successful

implementation of environmental sanitation policy in Ghana: An assessment of
key impeding factors. Heliyon, 9(3), e13670.
[Link]

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¹⁷The quality of local governance and development under decentralization

in the Philippines Capuno, Joseph J. [Link]

¹⁸Towards Effective and Socio-Culturally Appropriate Sanitation and

Hygiene Interventions in the Philippines: A Mixed Method Approach Lisa Maria
Pfadenhauer and Eva Rehfuess [Link]

¹⁹Transparency and Accountability Practices of Local Government Units in

the Philippines: a Measurement from the Ground Arneil G Gabriel, Laila Castro
Castillo Public Organization Review 20 (3), 437-457, 2020
[Link]

²⁰Water and sanitation in the Philippines - our impact. (n.d.). [Link]

[Link]/where-we-operate/philippines

²¹World Health Organization: WHO. (2024, March 22). Sanitation.

[Link]

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