Diode Circuits and Rectifier

Prof. Sushma Gupta

Department of Electrical Engineering
MANIT, Bhopal
 Rectifier
A rectifier is a circuit converts AC input voltage to
DC output voltage.
Semiconductor diodes are used extensively in power
electronics for conversion of power from AC to DC.
A rectifier employing diode is called an uncontrolled
rectifier, because its average output voltage is a
fixed.
A rectifier employing SCR, IGBT, Power BJT or Power
MOSFET is called an controlled rectifier, because its
output voltage is variable.
Rectifier may be one-pulse, two-pulse, three-pulse
or n-pulse. No. Of pulse in rectifier configuration is
obtained as:
Pulse number = number of load current (voltage)
pulses during one cycle of AC input voltage.
Single-Phase Half-Wave Rectifier
Resistive
Load
This is the simplest type of uncontrolled rectifier.
In a single-phase half-wave rectifier, one half-
cycle output is obtained for one cycle of supply
voltage so it is called single-phase one-pulse
rectifier.
Average value of output (or load)
voltage-

Average value of load current-

Inductive Load
When switch is closed at ωt = 0, diode starts
conducting, KVL for this circuit gives-

(
1
)
Substitution of the value of A in equation (1) gives

Output current io consists of DC

component and fundamental
frequency
RMS value of fundamental current I1r is
given by-

RMS value of rectified

current
 Capacitive Load

When switch S is closed at ωt =0, the

equation governing the behaviour of the
circuit is-

Output voltage
Capacitor is charged to
voltage Vm at ωt = π/2 and
this voltage remains
constant at Vm.
Capacitor current or load
current is maximum at ωt
= 0 and its value is ωC Vm.
The diode conducts only
from ωt = 0 to ωt = π/2.
During this interval, diode
voltage is zero.
After π/2, diode voltage vD
is given by-
vD = vs-v0 = Vm sin ωt - Vm
= Vm (sin ωt -1)
RMS value of voltage across
The time origin is defined diode
at ωt = π/2.
 Resistive-Inductive Load

It consists of AC source, diode, resistive

and inductive load.
From ωt = 0 to ωt = π/2, diode is forward biased
and acts as closed switch.
Output voltage (v0) will be the sum of voltage
across resistor (vR) and inductor (vL).
Due to inductive load, Current i0 continuous to flow
even after source voltage vs has become negative.
After positive half-cycle of source voltage, diode
remains on, so the negative half cycle of source
voltage appears load until load current i0 decays to
zero at ωt = β.
Voltage across resistor vR = i0R has the same
waveshape as that of load current i0.
Inductor voltage vL = vs –vR.
The current i0 flows till the two areas A and B are
equal.
Area A represents the energy stored by L and area
B represents the energy released by L.
Average value of voltage across inductor L is zero.
When i0 =0 at ωt = β, vL = 0, vR = 0 and voltage
appears as reverse bias across diode D.
At β, voltage across diode jumps from zero to
Vmsin β, where β> π.
Average value of output voltage is-

Average value of load or output current

A general Iexpression
0
for output current i0 for 0<
ωt < β can be obtained.
When diode is conducting, KVL for the circuit-
The load current io consists of two components, one
steady state component is and the other one is transient
components it.
The steady state component i s is given by-

Where and X =ωL.

The transient components can be obtained from force-
free equation-

Its solution gives-

Total solution for current i0 is given by-

(2
i0 = is +it = +
)

Constant A can be obtained from the boundary condition

at ωt =0
At ωt = 0 or t = 0, i0 =0

Substitute of A eq. (2)

At ωt = β, i0 =0, with this condition-

From this equation value of β can be obtained.

 Resistive-Inductive Load with Freewheeling
Diode
It consists of AC source, diode, resistive-inductive
load and Freewheeling Diode.
Average output voltage-
= Vm/π
Average load current-

RMS current would be same as in case of RL load

without freewheeling diode.
The effects of using freewheeling diode are-
It prevents the output voltage from becoming
negative.
The energy stored in L is transferred to load R
through FD, the system efficiency is improved.
Single-Phase Full-Wave Diode Rectifier

There are two types of full-wave

diode rectifier-
Centre-tapped or Mid-point
Bridge Type
 Single-Phase Full-Wave Mid-Point Diode Rectifier

It consists of AC supply,
transformer with single
primary windings and two
secondary winding, two
diodes and resistive load.
The turn ratio from each
primary to secondary is taken
as unity.
The diodes D1 and D2 should
have peak inverse voltage =
2 V m.
There are two pulses at the
output for one cycle of source
voltage so it is called single-
phase two-pulse diode
rectifier.
Single-Phase Full-Wave Bridge Diode Rectifier

It consists of AC source, transformer, four diodes

and resistive loads.
Average and rms values of output voltage and current will
be same as in mid-point type of rectifier.

Comparison between mid-point and bridge type is-

Mid-point type rectifier requires two diode whereas
bridge type rectifier requires four diodes.
In Mid-point type rectifier, diodes subjected to 2V m
PIV whereas bridge rectifier subjected to V m PIV only
The average and rms value of diode current
are obtained as-

The average value of voltage across each

diode is 2Vm/π in case of mid-point and Vm/π
in case of bridge type rectifier.
The rms values of voltage across each diode
is Vm = √2 Vs in case of mid-point and Vm/ √2
= Vs in case of bridge type rectifier.
 Performance parameters
The input voltage to rectifier is sinusoidal.
Output voltage for a rectifier should be constant with no
ripples but it is not obtained.
This shows that the rectified output voltage is made up of
constant DC voltage plus harmonics components.
The output voltage and current depend on the nature of
load and rectifier configuration.
In order to evaluate the overall performance of
rectifier-load combination, performance parameters or
indices are defined-
Input Performance Parameters-
Input Power-Factor: The input power factor PF is
defined as the ratio of mean input power (real power) to
the total rms input voltamperes (apparent power) given
to the converter system.

Φ1 = Phase angle between supply voltage and fundamental

component Is1 of supply current Is
Input Displacement Factor: If phase angle
between sinusoidal supply voltage Vs and
fundamental component Is1 of supply current Is is
Ф1. Its cosine is called the input displacement
factor DF.
DF = cos Ф1. DF is also called fundamental
power factor.
Input Current Distortion Factor(CDF): It is
defined as the ratio of rms value of fundamental
components Is1 of the input current to the rms
value of input (supply) current Is.

Input power factor = (Input current

distortion factor) x (input displacement
factor)
Crest factor (CF): Crest factor of input current is
defined as the ratio of peak input current Isp to its
Input Current Harmonic Factor: Non-sinusoidal
input or supply current is made up of fundamental
current plus current components of higher
frequencies. The harmonic factor (HF) is equal to the
rms value of all the harmonics divided by the rms
value of fundamental component of input current.

Harmonic factor is a measure of the harmonic

content in the input supply current.
The HF is also known as total harmonic distortion
(THD).
Greater the value of HF (or THD), greater is the
harmonic content and greater is the distortion of
input supply current
Output performance parameter
Rectification ratio (η): It is also called efficiency
of a converter or figure of merit. It is defined as
the ratio of DC output power Pdc to AC output
power Pac.

Effective or ripple value of the AC component of

output voltage is given by –

Where Vris called ripple voltage or effective value

of AC component of output voltage.
Form factor (FF): It is defined as the ratio of rms
value Vor of output voltage to the DC value Vo of
output voltage.
 (iv) Voltage Ripple Factor (VRF): It is defined
as the ratio of ripple voltage Vr to the average
output voltage Vo.

Or

(iv) Per-unit average output voltage: It is

defined as the ratio of average output voltage Vo
for any value of triggering angle to the average
output voltage Vom for zero degree firing angle.

(v) Current Ripple Factor (CRF): It is defined as

the ratio of rms value of all harmonic components
of the output current to the average output
current I0.
Here, Ior = rms value of output current including DC
and harmonics
Ir = rms value all harmonics components of output
(vi) Transformer utilization factor
(TUF): If V2(=Vs) and I2 (=Is) are
respectively the rms voltage and rms
current rating of secondary winding of a
transformer, then TUF is defined as

Transformer VA rating =
Lower the TUF, higher is the transformer
VA rating required.
It is desirable that a rectifier produces
a perfect DC output voltage so that (i)
rms value = DC value (ii) FF = 1.0 (iii)
AC component of output voltage = 0
(iv) HF = 0 (v) PF =1.0 and TUF = 1
 Single-Phase Half-Wave
Uncontrolled Rectifier
Performance parameters of Single-Phase Half-
Wave Uncontrolled Rectifier feeding with resistive
load are as follows-
DC output voltage Vo

DC Output Current

Output DC Power Pdc = Vo Io

 = 0.3856
Vm

Source voltage Vs is a sine wave, its rms value is- V s = Vm/√2

rms value of source current Is = rms value of output current Ior
= Im/2

A TUF= 0.285 means that VA rating of transformer is 1/TUF

times the DC power output. For a load of 100 watt, a
transformer having a rating of 100/.02865= 349.6 VA would
be required.
 DC saturation of the transformer core is a common
problem in the half waver rectifier circuit. Full wave
rectifier circuit does not have DC saturation of
transformer core because the current in the secondary
winding flows in two halves of the secondary winding of
the transformer and in opposite direction.
Cost Half wave rectifier is less costly since it requires
only one diode. Full wave rectifier is more costly since it
requires more than 1diodes.
A load of R =60 Ω is fed from 1-phase, 230 V, 50 Hz
supply through a step-up transformer and then one
diode. The transformer turns ratio is two. Find the VA
 Phase Controlled Rectifier
Phase controlled rectifiers are widely used in
industries like steel-rolling mill, printing press,
textile mills, traction systems, portable hand tools,
high voltage DC transmission etc.
In industries SCR and domestic IGBT are mostly
used in phase-controlled rectifier.
A SCR is turned off as AC supply voltage reverse
bias (negative) hence commutation circuit is not
required.
As commutation circuit is not required so these are
simple, less expensive and less space requirement.
The SCR is assumed as ideal switch means (i) there
is no voltage drop across it (ii) No reverse current
exists under reverse voltage condition (iii) ton and
toff = 0 (iv) holding current is zero.
Trigger circuit is not shown in circuit for simplicity.
Single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier for resistive
load

Circuit consists of AC
supply, SCR and resistive
load.
The SCR conducts when
anode voltage is positive
and gating signal is applied.
The SCR blocks the flow of
load current i0 until it is
triggered. A firing angle is defined
At some delay angle α, a as the angle measured
positive gate signal applied from the instant that gives
between gate and cathode the largest average output
which turns on the SCR. voltage to the instant it is
After gating signal, full triggered.
supply voltage is appeared A firing angle may be
to the load. defined as the angle
A firing angle is defined as measured from the instant
the angle between the SCR gets forward biased to
instant SCR would conduct the instant it is triggered.
if it is a diode and the
instant it is triggered.
By varying the firing
angle α, the phase
relationship between load
current and the supply
voltage can be controlled,
therefore it is called
phase control rectifier.
This is known as one
pulse rectifier because it
produces only one pulse
of load current during one
cycle of source voltage. As firing angle is increased
The SCR conducts from from zero to π, the average
ωt = α to π, (2π+ α) to 3 load voltage decreases
π and so on. from the largest value to
Before firing angle delay zero.
α, load voltage vo = 0 but The average voltage Vo
during conduction angle across load R-
(π- α), vo = vs.
 Average load
current

The rms load current

Ior is-
Power delivered to resistive load = (rms load voltage)(rms
load current)
= [Link] = Vor2 / R =Ior2. R
Input voltampere = (rms source voltage). (rms line current)
= Vs . Ior
Input power factor = Power delivered to load/ Input VA
= [Link] /VsIor = Vor/ Vs

A single-phase 230 V, 1 kW heater is connected across 1-

phase, 230 V, 50 Hz supply through a SCR. For firing angle
delays 45o and 90o, calculate the power absorbed in the
heater element.
Single-Phase Half-Wave with RL Load
Circuit consists of AC supply, SCR and resistive-
Inductive load.
The thyristor T is fired at an angle ωt = α. As soon
as the thyristor T is fired at ωt = α, load voltage
equal to the source voltage appears across the load
terminal.
The current does not start at this instant of firing
due to inductive load because it does not allow any
sudden change.
Therefore, at ωt = α, the output current will be zero
and will gradually increase. The output current will
become maximum and then start decreasing.
At ωt = π, the source voltage reduces to zero.
However, the load current will not be zero at this
instant because of inductance L.
Due to this, thyristor will not turn off, even though it
is reversed biased. Rather it will continue to
conduct till ωt = β.
At ωt = β, the load current becomes zero and
thyristor is reversed biased, hence it will turn off.
This is a case of natural commutation.
After ωt = β, vo = 0 and io = 0. At ωt = (2π+α),
the SCR is triggered again, vo is applied to the
load and load current develops as discussed
before.
The angle β where the load current becomes zero
is called extinction angle and the angle (β-α) for
which thyristor is ON is called conduction angle.
The SCR is reverse biased from ωt = β to ωt = 2π.
During this period, the current through thyristor is
also zero. Therefore, circuit turn off time is tc =
[(2π – β) / ω] second.
Voltage across SCR before α is vT = Vm sinα, from
ωt = α to β, vT = 0 and at ωt = β, vT = Vm sin β.
Voltage equation for the circuit, when T is on-

The load current io consists of two components,

one steady-state component is and the other
Steady state load current for single phase half wave
controlled rectifier is given as below.

Transient component it can be obtained from force-

free equation-

Its solution is given by-

i0 = is +it = (
+ 1
Constant A can be obtained from the) boundary
condition at ωt = α
At this time t = α/ω, io = 0
 .
or

Substitute of A in eq. (1)

gives
(2)

For
α < ωt <
β
Load current io is zero at ωt = β, substitute this
in eq. (2)
(3)

This equation can be solved to obtained the value of

extinction angle β. In case β is known, average load voltage
Vo is given by-
RMS load voltage of single phase half
wave controlled rectifier is given as below.

RMS load current can be obtained from eq.

(2)
Single-Phase Half-Wave with RL
Load and Freewheeling Diode
Circuit consists of AC supply, SCR, resistive-
Inductive load with freewheeling diode.
A freewheeling diode is also called by-pass or commutating
diode.
At ωt =0, source voltage is becoming positive.
At some delay angle α, forward biased SCR is triggered and
source voltage vs appears across load as vo.
After ωt =π, source voltage is negative so freewheeling diode
gets forward biased.
As a result, load current io is transferred from SCR to FD.
At the same time, SCR is subjected to reverse voltage and
zero current so it is turned off at ωt =π.
It is assumed that during freewheeling period, load current
does not decay to zero until the SCR is triggered again at
(2π+ α).
Voltage drop across FD is taken as zero, the load voltage vo is
zero during the freewheeling period.
Voltage across SCR is zero from ωt = α to π and reverse
biased from ωt = π to 2π.
The source current is and SCR current iT have the same
waveform.
Operation of the circuit can be explained in two modes-
Conduction Mode
Mode-I: For conduction mode (α≤ωt≤ π),
the voltage equation is-

Its solution is
i0 = is +it = (
At ωt = α, io =+ Io, or t = α/ω , io = I4o
)

Put the value of A into eq. (4)

Mode II: This is called freewheeling mode [π< ωt
≤ (2π+ α)], extends from π to 2π+ α, 3π to 4π + α
and so on.
In this mode, SCR is reverse biased from π to 2π,
3π to 4π and so on.
As the load current is assumed continuous, FD
conducts from π to 2π+ α, 3π to 4π + α and so on.
As the current is passing through FD, the voltage
equation for mode II is-

Its solution is
(5)

At ωt = π, io = Io1
It gives
Average load voltage Vo is given by-

Average load current Io is given by-

In half-wave single-phase rectifier with RL load: Load

consumes power P1 from source from α to π (both vo and io
are positive) whereas energy stored in inductance L is
returned to the source as power P2 from π to β (vo is
negative and io is positive). The net power consumed by the
load is the difference of these two powers P1 and P2.
In half-wave single-phase rectifier with RL load with
freewheeling diode: Load absorbs power for α to π but
for π to (2π+ α), energy stored in L is delivered to load
resistance R through the FD. As a consequence, power
consumed by load is more.
It is concluded that power delivered to the load more FD is
used for the same firing angle.
Advantages of Freewheeling diode-
Input pf (= Power delivered to
load/Input volt-ampere) is improved.
Load current waveform is improved.
Load performance is better.
As energy stored in L is transferred to R
during the freewheeling period, overall
converter efficiency improves.
Single-phase Full-Wave Mid-Point Converter
The circuit consists of Centre-tapped transformer
with unit turn ratio, two SCRs and R-L load.
 Single-phase Full-Wave Bridge Converter
Single-phase full-wave
bridge converter may be-
Half-controlled
converter or
semiconverter: Consists
of diodes and SCRs. It is a
one-quadrant converter.
The DC output voltage and
current both are positive.
Full-controlled
converter: Consists of
SCRs only. It is two-
quadrant converter. The
DC voltage may be
positive or negative but
current is always positive.
 Single-phase Full-Wave Bridge-Type
Converter with Resistive Load
Average Output
Voltage

RMS Output Average Output Current

Voltage

RMS Output
Current
VT1
VT2

VT3
VT4
Single-phase Full-Wave Bridge-Type Converter with R-L Load
Waveform for Waveform for α=
Single-Phase Full-Wave Bridge Converter
A single-phase full-wave
bridge converter consists of
four SCRs.
The load is assumed RLE,
where E is the load circuit
emf.
Voltage E may be due to a
battery in the load circuit or
may be generated emf of a
DC motor.
The SCRs T1 and T2 are
triggered at angle α, (2π+α)
and so on.
The SCRs T3 and T4 are
triggered at angle (π+α),
(3π+α) and so on.
The SCRs T1 and T2 are Modes of Operation:
triggered at angle ωt =α but 1. Continuous
these SCRs will get turned
Conduction
The average value of output voltage Vo is
given by-

RMS value of output voltage for single-

phase M-2 or B-2, controlled converter can
be obtained as under-
Single-phase full-converter with
discontinuous current
 Inverter Mode of Operation
If firing angle α > 90o, output
voltage will be negative.
If the load circuit emf E is
reversed and with α > 90o, then
DC source E will feed power
back to AC source.
This mode of operation of a full
converter with α > 90o is known
as inverter operation.
The full converter with firing
angle delay greater than 90o is
called line-commutated
inverter.
During the inverter operation,
the voltage source E in the load
on the DC side may be battery,
a photovoltaic source, a DC
voltage produced by wind-
generator.
During 0 to α, AC source voltage vs is positive but AC
source current is is negative, power flows from DC source
to AC source.
From α to π, both vs and is are positive, power flows from
AC source to DC source.
The net power flow from DC source to AC source because
(π- α) < α.
Numericals-
[1] SCRs with peak forward voltage rating of 1000 V and
average on-state current rating of 40 A are used in single-
phase mid-point converter and single-phase bridge
converter. Find the power that these two converters can
handle. Use a factor of safety of 2.5.
[2] A single phase full converter bridge is connected to
RLE load. The source voltage is 230 V, 50 Hz. The average
load current of 10 A is constant over the working range.
For R = 0.4 Ω and L= 2 mH, compute- (a) firing angle
delay for E = 120 V (b) firing angle delay for E = -120 V.
Indicate which source is delivering power to load in parts
(a) and (b). (c) In case output current is assumed constant
find the input pf for both parts (a) and (b).
Single-phase semi-converter or half-controlled
converter
A single-phase semiconverter bridge consists of
two thyristor and three diodes.
The load current flows one device from the top group
(T1 or T2) and one device from the bottom group (D1
or D2) must conduct.
However, T1 and D2 or T2 and D1 cannot conduct
simultaneously.
On the other hand T1 D1 and T2 D2 conducts
simultaneously.
After ωt = 0, SCR T1 is triggered at a firing angle
delay voltage Vmsin α > E.
With T1 on, load gets connected to source through T1
and D1.
For a period ωt = α to π, load current i0 flows through
RLE, D1, source and T1 and load terminal voltage vo is
of the same waveshape as the AC source voltage vs.
At ωt = π, FD gets forward biased and starts
conducting.
The load or output current io is transferred from T1,
During the interval α to π, T1 and D1 conduct and AC
source delivers energy to the load circuit.
This energy is partially stored in inductor L, partially
stored as electric energy in load circuit emf E and
partially dissipated as heat in R.
During the freewheeling period π to (π+ α), energy
stored in inductance is recovered and is partially
dissipated in R and partially added to the energy
stored in load emf E.
No energy is fed back to the source during free
wheeling periods.
For semiconductor, the average output voltage V0 is
given by-

And rms value of output voltage is-

The variation of average value of converter
output voltage as a function of firing angle α is
shown in figure for semiconverter and full-
converter.
 Single-phase symmetrical
semiconductor

One triggering circuit is

required
 Single-phase asymmetrical semiconductor

Two triggering circuits are

required
 Effect of Source-Inductance in Rectifier
It is consider that
commutation of thyristors
takes place
instantaneously once there
is a phase reversal.
In practice, there exists an
inductance and resistance
in the supply source.
This inductance is known
as source inductance
LS and due to this the line The phenomenon of the
commutation process of overlapping period is more
the thyristors and the severe in fully-controlled
turning ON process of the converters compared to the
thyristors are delayed for a semi-converters.
small duration, which is
The below shows the single-
termed as the Overlapping
phase fully-controlled bridge
Period.
converter circuit with source
inductance LS.
Due to the presence of source inductance, the current
in the outgoing thyristor takes a finite time to reduce to
zero.
This causes a delay in the commutation of that
thyristor.
The current will rise slowly in the incoming thyristor.
This results in the conduction of both incoming and
outgoing thyristor simultaneously for a finite time
period known as the Overlapping Period.
During the overlapping period, the rate of rise of load
current through the thyristors being turned ON will be
equal to the rate of fall of current in the thyristors
being turned OFF.
This results in the short circuit across the source
terminals.
Hence, the output voltage becomes zero during the
overlap period and this period remains for a duration μ
called as overlap angle or commutation angle.
During the positive half of the supply cycle,
thyristors T1 and T2 are triggered at firing angle α.
The positive cycle will reverse bias the already
conducting SCRs T3 and T4.
The positive group SCRs T1 and T2 now act as
incoming SCRs whereas the negative group SCRs
T3 and T4 will act as outgoing SCRs.
Since the load current is assumed to be constant,
it should immediately transfer from outgoing
SCRs to incoming SCRs, i.e., from T3 T4 to T1 T2.
The current, i2 due to T3 and T4 should go to zero
instantaneously and the current, i1 due to T1 and
T2 should reach the load current
Idc instantaneously.
An inductor does not allow sudden changes in current.
Thus due to source inductance L S, the fall of i2 and rise
of i1 will not be instantaneous rather it is gradual.
Hence, there will be a small period during which both
the currents i1 and i2 will flow in the circuit, resulting in a
short circuit across the source terminals.
This period is called as Overlapping Period.
During this period, the output voltage will be zero.
At ωt = π, as the supply voltage is negative the
thyristors T1 and T2 should be turned off, and hence
i1 should be zero.
But due to the presence of source inductance, the
current i1 will not go to zero at ωt = π, rather starts
decreasing gradually towards zero.
Due to this, the output voltage V dc will become negative
for a small period till the incoming SCRs are triggered.
 Derivation of Output Voltage :

Below shows the equivalent circuit for a the

above bridge converter circuit.
Since the load current is constant At the instant ωt = α, load
current i1 through T1 and
T2 builds up from 0 to Idc during
the overlap angle μ.
i1 = 0, at ωt = (α + μ)
i1 = Idc
Integrating equation (3) we get,
From the waveform By using equation (7), a dc
equivalent circuit for a single-phase
full converter is given as,
This reveals the effect of source inductance LS is to
present an equivalent inductance ωLS/π which is in
series with internal voltage (ωVm cos α)/π.
If Idc is the load current, the presents of source
inductance cause a drop of (ωLS Idc)/π in the load or
output voltage.
From the above variation curve of load voltage with
load current, we can conclude that the average output
voltage decreases with the increase in source
inductance.
Therefore, the effect of source inductance on a single-
phase full converter is such that, until the overlap
angle lies below π, the output voltage will be equal to
a value shown in equation (6).
If μ = π, both incoming and outgoing thyristors will
remain in the conduction state, thereby making the
output voltage zero.