1

Summary

Ethics Class 13

FEATURES OF ETHICS (5:09 PM)

●​ Ethics never dictates any single course of action however, it provides/ prescribes the
means to evaluate possible actions Concerning right or wrong.
●​ Every society has a code to ensure;
●​ Peace, and harmony.
●​ Cooperation.
●​ Conformity.
●​ Prevent deviance.
●​ Ethics remain constant within the context but it changes with context( society, culture, time
period)
●​ Hence ethics is not either absolute, universal, or eternal.
●​ Ethics exist at multiple levels there can be organizational ethics, institutional ethics,
personal ethics, and societal ethics.
●​ Where an individual is only influenced by ethics but also shapes the ethics of society.
●​ Such as When individual morals accepted by society lead to ethics.
●​ When ethics of society are practiced at an individual level called morals.
●​ Example Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Gandhiji, Savitri Phule.
●​ Ethics are abstract (especially societal ethics). They lack concrete manifestation hence
people fail to realise its meaning and significance. And often digress toward the path of
unethical behavior.
●​ Ethics is often applied in the context of voluntary action.
●​ If an individual is made is perform an act under gunpoint then that act will not be
evaluated under the ethical ambit with respect to right to wrong.
●​ Ethics are maintained and sustained by a sense of responsibility and not mere
accountability to some external agencies.
●​ For example helping the accident victim or charity from personal wealth or upholding
democracy by voting in elections etc
ESSENCE OF ETHICS (5:35 PM)
●​ Every individual is capable of making informed and intelligent choices
●​ The choices that they make has implication for both individual and society.
●​ Hence, every individual should be morally responsible for the choices they make.
●​ It is the ethics that enables them to make the right choices.
DETERMINANTS OF ETHICS (5:45 PM)
●​ 1)God and religion;
●​ Religion-based ethics trace the source to god which says something is right or wrong.
●​ As per this determinant the ethical standards are absolute and universal.
●​ For example, Niskama Karma of Bhagavad Gita.
●​ Eightfold path of Buddhism.
●​ Philosophy of Anekantvad of Jainism etc
●​ Although religion can be one of the sources of ethics but it can't be equated with ethics as
ethics are applied to those also who are atheists.
 ●​ 2) Human Intuition: -
●​ Example,
●​ A:- We should not harm animals for fun.
●​ B:- Why?
●​ A:- because it will cause pain and we should not cause pain to others.
●​ B:- Why?
●​ A: we should treat others as we want to be treated by them
●​ B: Why?
●​ A: because this is the right thing to do.
●​ Gut-level response to ethical dilemmas without deliberation is referred to as moral
intuition.
●​ For example, seeing a child in distress in a crowd the moral response is to help the child
is to find his or her parents.
●​ The decision based on moral intuition is quick.
●​ For example, India provided humanitarian assistance during floods in Pakistan without
any hesitation.
●​ Decisions are highly subjective as they depend upon individual ethical disposition or
moral disposition.
●​ Often decisions based on moral intuition are driven by the attitude of empathy and
emotional intelligence
●​ Often people indulging in intuitive decisions have the following qualities;
●​ Kindness.
●​ Compassion.
●​ Love.
●​ Gratitude etc
●​ 3) Culture and society;
●​ There is a famous saying be a Roman in Rome.
●​ The ethical principles of individuals are also influenced by the culture they belong to.
●​ For example;
●​ WEST- individualism, Competition, rationality, consumption.
●​ Indian society- Collectivism, Cooperation, Strong religious orientation, Delayed
gratification.
●​ Similarly, society is the most important source of ethics however it should not be equated
with ethics because many times society deviates from ethical behaviour.
●​ For example Society practices patriarchy, dowry, caste-based discrimination etc which are
unethical.
●​ 4)Agencies of socialization;
●​ For example family, teachers, cinema, peer groups, life experiences, etc are important
agents of shaping ethical values.
●​ 5) LEADERSHIP;
●​ Leadership helps in determining the conduct of their followers for example;
VALUE. LEADERS.
Rationality, visionary. Sardar Patel.
Integrity. L.B Shastri.
Courage and wisdom. Sam Manekshaw.

●​ However, Leaders are also prone to unethical practices hence one should not blindly
 follow them. Example Hitler.
●​ 6)Philosophy(to be covered under Normative ethics)
●​ 7)Constitution;
●​ It is a way to establish the moral disposition of the society.
●​ For example Fundamental duties, DPSCP, Preamble
●​ Although there are different determinants of ethics but in case of dilemma it should be the
constitutional morality that should govern human conduct ( Our constitution is not a static
document it is based on the doctrine of the living tree).
DETERMINING ETHICS w.r.t TO HUMAN ACTION (6:41 PM)
●​ 1)Object- Nature of the act.
●​ Primary determinant of morality of act.
●​ Examples;
●​ Telling the truth- Morally right
●​ Telling lie- Morally wrong
●​ Jogging/running/sitting- morally indifferent.
●​ 2) Circumstances-Context of the act.
●​ It impacts the morality of the action.
●​ Examples;
●​ A good act can be made even better (giving a food to starving person)
●​ Indifferent acts can be made good. Example-sitting with a lonely person.
●​ Bad acts can be made worse-> Example, Robbing a Beggar of his only meal of the day.
●​ 3) Purpose; Intention behind the act.
●​ Example;
●​ Good act but bad intention- Donating to increase followers on Instagram
●​ Bad act + good intention- Robinhood.
●​ Indifferent + Good intention-> Doctor running Amidist traffic to save patients life.
CONSEQUENCES OF ETHICS (6:54 PM)
At the Individual level. At Societal level.
Ethical life is the source of It will ensure good
ultimate happiness. For governance. Example
example, the Act of blood Armstrong Pame,
donation makes us feel Prashant Nair.
good.
Ethical behavior makes a Ethics of care, justice, and
person high order being rationality will motivate
who is beyond the society to bring desirable
lower-order needs. For changes. For example
example, Lord Ram did progressive laws such as
not care about lower-order decriminalization of
needs such as power, suicide under the Mental
wealth, or kingship but Healthcare Act or
focused on virtues of recommendation of the
compassion, kindness, Supreme Court to treat
integrity etc sex workers and their
children with dignity etc
An ethical person will It ensures equitable and
always be acknowledged inclusive development as
and appreciated and will ethics will ensure fair
have credibility in society opportunities and fair
for example Honest civil distribution of resources
servants, compassionate
political leadership and
courageous common man.
Ethical behavior leads to Ethical behaviour will help
mutual kindness and in establishing a
hence will establish good sustainable social order by
interpersonal relations. socializing the younger
generation with respect to
ethical values.
It will ensure peace of NA
Mind, will reduce the crisis
of conscious and will
enable individuals to make
quick decisions.
Questions;
1.​ The crisis of ethical values in modern times is traced to a narrow perception of the good
life. Discuss ( 150 words/10 Marks)
2.​ Discuss the significance of ethics with respect to individual and societal well-being ( 150
words/10 Marks).
DIMENSIONS OF ETHICS (7:20 PM)
●​ Descriptive Ethics.
●​ Meta Ethics.
●​ Normative ethics.
●​ Applied ethics.
●​ Descriptive Ethics;
●​ What people think is right and wrong.
●​ Metaethics;
●​ What does right mean.
●​ Normative ethics;
●​ What is the ‘Right’ thing to do.
●​ Applied ethics;
●​ Application of moral values in real-life situations.
THE TOPIC OF THE NEXT CLASS- Continuation of Dimensions of Ethics
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Summary

Ethics Class 14

BRIEF OVERVIEW OF PREVIOUS CLASS & QUERY RESOLUTION (5:07 PM)

●​ The faculty revised the dimension of the Ethics.
DESCRIPTIVE ETHICS (5:10 PM)
●​ It is the study of people's beliefs about morality.
●​ It is an empirical investigation regarding what society rewards or punishes.
●​ It is value-free i.e. free from any judgment or opinion regarding the morality or ethical
practices of society.
●​ One of the famous examples of descriptive ethics is Lawrence-Kohlberg's stages of moral
development.
●​
Note:
○​ Value-free: Knowledge and decisions are shaped by personal
values; there is no such thing as complete objectivity.
○​ Value-laden: Knowledge and decisions can be made without
being influenced by values; complete objectivity is possible.
LAWRENCE KOHLBERG'S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT (5:17 PM)
●​ He was an American psychologist who believed that moral development follows a series
of stages.
●​ He adopted a storytelling technique to tell people about stories involving moral dilemmas.
●​ It is the manner in which an individual reason and respond to the dilemma that will
determine the stage of moral development.
●​ One of the best-known dilemmas created was Heinz's dilemma which discussed the idea
of obeying the law versus saving a life.
●​ Heinz's dilemma:
●​ Heinz's wife was dying due to cancer.
●​ According to the Doctor, the new drugs discovered can save his wife.
●​ However, the chemist who discovered the drug was charging 10 times the cost of the
drugs which Heinz could not afford.
●​ After a series of requests and pleading when the chemist did not relent one night Heinz
broke into the shop and stole the drugs.
●​ The question asked by Kohlberg was:
●​ 1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug?
●​ 2. Will anything change if Heinz did not love his life?
●​ 3. Will the police arrest the chemist for murder if the wife dies?
●​ By studying the responses to the above questions Kohlberg identified three stages
of moral development:
●​ Pre-conventional stage (Age <9 years)
●​ Stage 1: Right and wrong are determined by what an individual is punished for. For eg, if
you get scolded for stealing then definitely stealing is wrong.
●​ Stage 2: Right and wrong are determined by what an individual is rewarded for or by
 doing what others want us to do. (Overall morality is determined by the motivation of
self-interest)
●​ Conventional stage (Age 9 <20 years)
●​ Stage 3: A child possesses a conformist attitude to morality i.e. right and wrong are
determined by the majority. ( Agency of socialization such as family, school, society, etc )
●​ Stage 4: They think the law is the supreme authority and it needs to be respected.
However, most adults do not progress beyond this stage
●​ Post-conventional stage (Age>19 years)
●​ Stage 5: Right and wrong are determined by personal values. Here, the individual is
aware that laws exist for good but at times, they may work against the interest of
individuals. For eg, a hungry child steals a loaf of bread for a starving family or jumps the
traffic signal to save someone's life
●​ Stage 6: People at this stage have their own stage of moral guidelines which may fit or
may not fit the law (people's opinions regarding homosexuality, euthanasia, etc). These
principles apply to everyone and it is based on humanity, justice, equality etc. The people
are ready to defend them even if it goes against the rest of society. For eg Initiative taken
by Kailash Satyarthi to fight against Child labour or the efforts of Bhanwari Devi with
respect to Child Marriage.
●​
○​ Note: In stage 5, one is not breaching the law while
in stage 6 one is willing to breach the law
●​ Question: Write a short note on each of the following: (150 words/ 10 marks)
●​ 1. Determinants of Ethics in Human Actions.
●​ 2. Descriptive Ethics
●​ 3. Heinz Dilemma
●​ 4. kohlberg stages of Moral Development
META-ETHICS (5:56 PM)
●​ It is a sub-discipline of Ethics which deals with the evaluation of Ethics.
●​ For e.g. what do we mean by morality? Why stealing is considered immoral or Why do
practices like Santhara persist in society?
●​ There are different philosophies under meta-ethics:
●​ 1. Moral Absolutism:
●​ It is the philosophy based on which there exists an absolute definition of moral conduct
which cannot change with circumstances.
●​ There are some actions which are inherently right or wrong irrespective of the context.
●​ For example: the golden rule of life or deontology.
●​ Many religions have morally absolutist positions as they source their belief from god.
Therefore, it is perfect unchangeable and universal.
●​ 2. Moral Relativism:
●​ Nothing is right or wrong for all time to come.
●​ The moral standards of behaviour depend upon the society, culture, time period etc.
●​ For example - cross-cousin's marriage
●​ For example - patrilocal /patrilineal families or matrilocal /matrilineal families
●​ Moral Objectivism:
●​ It is the position that certain acts are objectively right or wrong independent of individuals'
opinions.
●​ For eg- fundamental duties as enshrined in the constitution.
 ●​ Moral Subjectivism:
●​ It is a philosophy according to which morality is not based on rules or norms but on the
perceptions of the subjects.
●​ Morality is not dependent on rules or societal norms but on the individuals.
●​ For eg - According to X developmental projects should be carried out as they will lead to
economic growth. According to Y, they are causing environmental pollution, and
displacements of tribals hence not desirable.
●​ Moral Nihilism:
●​ It is a meta-ethical view which believes there is nothing right or wrong inherently in ethics
●​ According to them, ethical claims are false because they can change and can be given
meaning by humans, therefore, there are no inherent morals in any action
●​ Moral nihilists would say “Killing someone for any reason is not wrong, but neither it is
right "
●​ Similarly, “capitalist punishment is prohibited in many countries on ethical grounds while
other countries are in favour of it ”
●​ It is different from moral relativism which allows for actions to be wrong or right in relation
to a particular culture.
●​ Moral nihilists do not deny people's claim to have moral absolutes but they would deny
the existence of moral absolutes
●​ According to them, people don’t act according to their own morals but according to social
conventions. Hence according to them, morality as a concept is a fabrication or an
artificial tool of social control.
NORMATIVE ETHICS (6:44 PM)
●​ What is the right thing to do?
●​ It is also referred to as 'prescriptive Ethics'
●​ It can be prescribed based on the following:
●​ a) Action-based ethics
●​ b) Virtue-based ethics
●​ c) Justice-based ethics
●​ d) Right-based ethics
Action Based Ethics (6:43 PM)
●​ It is also known as duty-based ethics
●​ It is divided into two types i.e. deontology and Teleology
●​ In Teleology we will study Psychological Egoism (Thomes Hobbes), Ethical Egoism (Ayn
Rand), Utilitarianism (Thomas Bentam), Revisted Utilitarianism (J.S. Mill), the Concept of
Common Good (Amartya Sen).
●​ Note- Kindly refer to the diagram drawn by the faculty related to various dilemmas.
DEONTOLOGY (7:03 PM)
●​ It is known as 'duty-based Ethics', the moral worth of an action is determined by the action
itself i.e. " no wrong of doing the right thing".
●​ Here, the moral worth of an action is determined by the act itself i.e “ no wrong way of
doing right things ”
●​ Here rightness is determined by focusing on the process rather than the outcomes eg: -
Nishkama karma
●​ Under this approach, decisions should be made considering one’s duties & rights of
others
●​ For eg: piracy is wrong or leaking class lectures on telegram, kicking the animal to save
their life (no matter what the intention is action itself is wrong) etc
 ●​ This approach is criticized for being rigid in its approach.
TEOLOLOGY (7:11 PM)
●​ It is also known as ‘Consequential Ethics’
●​ Right /wrong does not depend on the process but outcomes as ‘ End justifies Means’
●​ For instance, it is wrong to kill one person in order to save the life of others or the concept
of Robinhood or leaking the video on telegram to increase the outreach can be justified
●​ However, even this approach is criticised as one can never predict the consequences of
one's actions.
●​ There often exists a debate between deontology and teleology where deontology is
considered to be highly rigid. Hence to do away with this rigidity the concept of threshold
deontology has been introduced.
●​ According to this perspective, an action which otherwise is morally wrong can still be
justified if the consequences surpass a certain threshold of seriousness.
●​ For instance, it is wrong to kill one person in order to save the lives of three people but it
can still be justified to torture one terrorist in order to save an entire city.
●​ Question - " With regard to the morality of actions, one view is that means is of
paramount importance and the other view is that the ends justify the means. Which view
do you think is more appropriate? Justify your answer. "(UPSC 2018)
THE TOPICS FOR THE NEXT CLASS: CONTINUATION OF TELEOLOGY & DEONTOLOGY
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Summary

Ethics Class 15

A BRIEF REVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (05:04 PM)

●​ Normative ethics
●​ Deontology
●​ Teleology
CONSEQUENTIAL ETHICS (05:08 PM)
●​ Consequential Ethics- Consequences for self and Consequences for others
●​ Consequences for self-
●​ Psychological Egoism
●​ Ethical Egoism
●​ Consequences for others-
●​ Utilitarianism
●​ Revisited Utilitarianism
●​ Concept of common good
●​ Egoism- It refers to when behaviour is solely motivated by the desire to benefit the self.
●​
Psychological Ethical Egoism
Egoism
It is a descriptive It is a prescriptive
approach approach
Human actions are Human actions
always motivated by should be motivated
self-interest by self-interest
Supported by one of Supported by one of
the key philosophers- the famous English
"Thomas Hobbes" writers- "Ayn Rand"
●​ Ethical Egoism
●​
Positive Negative
It reduces the However, if everyone
possibility of conflict is driven by interest
between morality and then it will end up
self-interest because creating a
morality is based on self-centred society
self-interest where there is a loss
of empathy
It will make moral
decisions rational and
it is 'absolutely
rational to pursue
one's own interest'
 It will encourage
'self-awareness'
If you know yourself
and what you need,
you can stay
productive for a
longer period in
society.
It makes it easier to
work towards your
goals and indulge in
self-care routines.
THOMAS HOBBES (05:31 PM)
●​ He was an English philosopher who gave his theory during the time of the Civil War.
●​ According to him, humans by very nature are selfish, brutish, etc i.e. they can not
maintain peace and stability and is believed that they will engage in fierce battle for
scarce resources to fulfill their vested interests.
●​ Prescription
●​ He prescribed that people should come together through a social contract to form a state
known as the Leviathan State.
●​ It will have absolute power to govern.
●​ People will not have absolute rights.
●​ The state should emphasise education to induce obedience among the people.
●​ For e.g. North Korea.
●​ Ayn Rand
●​ She was a writer and philosopher who supported ethical egoism.
●​ According to her, every individual should exist for their happiness i.e. neither sacrificing
yourself for others nor expecting others to sacrifice themselves.
●​ She condemned ethical altruism as it is against an individual's happiness.
●​ For e..g., According to this perspective altruistic surrogacy is not justified.
UTILITARIANISM (05:45 PM)
●​ It is a dimension of ethics, where the moral worth of an action is based on benefiting the
majority.
●​ 2 major philosophers-
●​ Jeremy Bentham
●​ J S Mill
●​ Examples-
●​ At an individual level- Self-interest
●​ At the Societal level- Greater happiness for a greater number
●​ At the Governance level- Govt schemes with the intention to benefit the maximum number
of people.
●​ Jeremy Bentham
●​ His philosophy was based on the principle of pleasure and pain.
●​ According to this approach, the moral worth of an action is based on greater happiness
for a greater number.
●​ In the scheme of Bentham, the focus was majority and individual liberty did not have any
place.
 ●​ He promoted quantitative utilitarianism i.e. how much one is happy but not its quality.
●​ He justified it by saying, that Pushpin is the same as poetry.
●​ His philosophy was criticised at two levels-
●​ a) Overlooking the interest of minorities
●​ b) Consider happiness only in materialistic things
●​ Revisited Utilitarianism by J S Mills
●​ To defend Utilitarianism he put forward his perspective.
●​ He supported Utilitarianism but in such a way that individual actions should not bring
harm to society i.e. pleasure of one should not cause displeasure to others.
●​ He distinguished between higher-order and lower-order pleasure where intellect-based
pleasure is considered more important.
●​ E.g. Hard work vs Entertainment.
●​ It is better to be a Socrates dissatisfied rather than a fool satisfied.
●​ J S Mill put forward the idea of liberty when he mentioned that in the process of serving
the majority interest, the minority's interest should never be compromised.
●​ J S Mill was criticised that although he tried to defend utilitarianism but ended by
overturning it and it was said that he was the Peter who denied his master.
●​ Concept of common good
●​
Utilitarianism Concept of Common
Good
Unit- Individual Unit- Society
Maximum benefit for The aim is to
the maximum number maximize benefit for
of individuals society which will later
trickle down
Examples- Universal Examples- Investment
Basic Income, DBT, in social infrastructure
CCT, Subsidies etc such as roads,
hospitals, schools etc
DEONTOLOGY (06:34 PM)
●​ No wrong way of doing the right thing.
●​ Famous philosopher- Immanuel Kant
●​ He gave the concept of the "Categorical Imperative"
●​ Categorical- Absolute/ Non-negotiable
●​ Imperative- Need of the hour
●​ The moral worth of action will be determined by whether it fulfils principles of the
'Categorical Imperative'
●​ Four moral principles on which categorical imperative is based:
●​ Principle of Universalism
●​ Principle of Equality
●​ Principle of Humanism
●​ Duty Principle
●​ Principle of Universalism- Acting in such a way that it can be made a universal law.
Hence telling a lie, stealing, and cheating can not be justified as per this philosophy.
●​ Principle of Equality- These universal laws should be applicable to all including the self.
If there are any exceptions then it is not based on categorical imperative.
 ●​ For e.g. You show me the man, I show you the rule' goes against this principle.
●​ E.g. 2- The Golden Rule of Life (Treat others as you want to be treated) justifies the
principle of equality.
●​ Principle of Humanism
●​ People should never be treated as means but as an end in themselves. Hence, actions
like child labour, surrogacy, use of humans in clinical trials, objectification,
commodification, etc are not justified according to this approach.
●​ Duty Principle-
●​ Acting in the right manner because it is the right thing to do and not because of any
reward or fear of punishment. For e.g. Philosophy of Nishkam Karma.
●​ Charity is a moral action but when celebrities indulge in charity to increase their public
engagement then it will not be considered as an ethical conduct.
VIRTUE-BASED ETHICS (07:06 PM)
●​ It is a branch of ethics where who is performing the action is more important than what
action is performed.
●​ It is not based on an 'evolutionary approach'
●​ It is focused on building the moral character of the society.
●​ It is based on the idea of virtue which is referred to as desirable traits.
●​ For e.g. honesty, kindness, compassion, integrity, courage, etc.
●​ It emphasizes that the moral worth of an action is determined if a virtuous person will
perform the same action in the same circumstances.
●​ Since according to Aristotle, a virtuous person when confronted with ethical dilemmas
will make the right choices.
●​ This approach emphasizes the significance of the process of socialization, hence
agencies of socialization have an indispensable role to play.
●​ This perspective was criticized on the following grounds:
●​ It fails to provide a definite model to arrive at a moral decision.
●​ There is too much subjectivity in defining what constitutes virtues as they may be very
culture-specific.
TOPIC OF THE NEXT CLASS- VIRTUE-BASED ETHICS (TO CONTINUE)
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Summary

Ethics Class 16

A BRIEF DISCUSSION OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (5:07 P.M.)

VIRTUE-BASED ETHICS (5:10 P.M.)
●​ Socrates
●​ 'Knowledge is a virtue'.
●​ Plato
●​ There are four cardinal virtues:
●​ (a) Wisdom
●​ (b) Courage
●​ (c) Temperance
●​ (d) Justice
●​ Aristotle
●​ The golden mean is a virtue.
SOCRATES
●​ He was an ancient Greek philosopher known for his Socratic questioning method and
commitment to seeking truth and wisdom.
●​ This method involved engaging in dialogues, often leading to questioning, inquiry, and
deciding whether to accept or reject.
●​ In his own words, an unexamined life is not worth living.
●​ In the backdrop of fake news, paid news, deep fake, increased conflict in society, etc. is
due to a lack of examination of the facts.
●​ One should have the freedom to express his/her opinion, along with the ability and
courage to speak the truth.
●​ For example, countries not questioning China's aggressive policy.
●​ According to Socrates, virtues determine the morality of the action, and knowledge is the
virtue.
●​ Concerning Indian philosophy knowledge is the virtue.
●​ For example, according to Bhagavad Geeta, one can achieve moksha through Gyan
Marg.
●​ According to Jainism, having the right knowledge is the path to achieving the Kaivalya
(ultimate liberation).
PLATO
●​ According to Plato, there are four cardinal virtues,
●​ (a) Wisdom
●​ Wisdom is the sum of knowledge and morality.
●​ It refers to the application of knowledge in the right direction.
●​ This virtue involves sound judgment and the ability to make wise decisions.
●​ It plays an important role in regulating all other virtues.
●​ For example, Praveen Kaswan, an IFoS official used social media to promote indigenous
products like water bottles made of bamboo.
●​ (b) Courage
●​ It is referred to as the bravery to do justice.
 ●​ It not only deals with physical bravery but also moral and intellectual courage to stand for
what is right.
●​ For example, frontline workers during COVID-19, firefighters, socio-religious reformers,
honest civil servants, etc.
●​ Kiran Bedi showed immense courage when she implemented reforms in the Tihar jail,
despite the resistance from bureaucracy and traditional practices.
●​ (c) Temperance
●​ It is referred to as the moderation of thoughts, emotions, and actions
●​ This virtue is our strength which protects us against any excess we commit and it consists
of self-regulation.
●​ It is useful in handling communal conflicts, interpersonal relations, gaming disorders,
Mcdonaldisation of food habits, consumerism, credit card culture, social media obsession,
road rage, trolling, corruption, etc.
●​ (d) Justice
●​ Plato gave the theory of justice at the two levels- individual and State level.
●​ At the individual level, every soul has three qualities, although in different proportions:
●​ Reason (To think and learn)- This resides in the head.
●​ Spirit (To remain motivated)- This resides in the heart.
●​ Appetite (To know what we need)- This resides in the stomach.
●​ According to Plato, justice is served at the individual level when all these qualities serve
their rightful purpose.
●​ A wise man will use his emotions to motivate himself to do what intellect finds valuable.
●​ An unwise person will use emotions to overindulge in appetite.
●​ Sometimes an individual knows that they are wrong and still perform the action because
emotions side with their appetite.
●​ When these three parts existing in every individual are reflected at the State level, justice
is served.
●​ The individual with the reason/wisdom should be part of the ruling class.
●​ The individual with the spirit/courage should be part of the military class.
●​ The individual with the appetite/temperance should be part of the producer class.
ARISTOTLE (6:00 P.M.)
●​
Humility Modesty Pride
Flattery Friendship Quarrelso
me
Stingy Generosity Extravaga
nce
Indecisive Self-Contr Impulsive
ol
Apathy Composur Irritable
e
●​ In the above table it is highlighted that according to Aristotle, the golden mean is a virtue.
●​ It is the character that determines the ethicality and not the action, intention, or
consequences.
●​ For example, let us say, that there exists discontent with some government policies. One
should not indulge in violent protest or shouldn't remain silent.
●​ However, they should follow the middle path of taking an action that is legally approved.
JUSTICE BASED ETHICS (6:15 P.M.)
●​
Concerning Distributive
Crime Justice
Retributive Aristotle
Justice
Reformative Rawl
Justice
Compensation Amartya Sen
as a means of
Justice.
●​ Retributive Justice
●​ Retributive means exchange/reciprocity/quid pro quo.
●​ If 'X' has committed a crime, s/he will be punished. These three principles need to be
followed while deciding on punishment:
●​ (a) Proportionate
●​ (b) Retrospective Implementation
●​ (c) No double jeopardy
●​ Retributive justice in the absence of adequate reforms creates the probability of a person
falling into the trap of committing repeated crimes.
●​ In the absence of change in the value system criminal tendencies are encouraged due to:
●​ (a) Revenge-seeking attitude.
●​ (b) Lack of social integration due to naming and shaming.
●​ Reformative Justice
●​ It is based on the philosophy that 'every saint has a past and every sinner has a future'.
●​ It focuses on the rehabilitation of criminals by introducing reforms such as counselling,
vocational training, meditation, ethical values, etc.
●​ The Ministry of Home Affairs released a model prison manual in 2016 emphasizing the
rights of prisoners, humane treatment, and standards for prison management.
●​ However, reformative justice should never replace retributive justice as there would be a
lack of deterrence.
●​ Justice as Compensation
●​ In the cases of communal atrocities, the context of vulnerable sections, etc. compensation
constitutes an important element of justice as it is required for their basic survival.
●​ Aristotle (6:43 P.M.)
●​ It is unjust to treat equals unequally as it is unjust to treat unequal equally.
●​ It means that only equals should be treated equally and unequals should be treated
unequally.
●​ According to Aristotle, the distribution of wealth should be directly proportional to their
merit.
●​ According to him, 'justice is a virtuous mean between the vices of giving more or less than
what an individual deserves'.
●​ His theory was criticized for being elitist and not taking into consideration historical
injustices, social pathologies, and the socio-economic positioning of an individual.
●​ Rawl's Theory
●​ Rawls was a moral and political philosopher who was known for his book, theory of
justice.
 ●​ According to him, an individual is capable of making rational decisions. Based on this
assumption he gave the theory of justice.
●​ To ensure that objective standard is used in decision-making and without any prejudice,
the concept of the veil of ignorance was put forward.
●​ It is a hypothetical situation before the starting of the society when people decide the
principles on which the society is built.
●​ These people are unaware of the social position that they would occupy in the future
society, i.e. rich, poor, majority, minority, etc.
●​ This would ensure the development of fair and just principles as provisions would be
made to benefit the entire society keeping in mind the worst-case scenario.
●​ Principles proposed by Rawls
●​ (a) Liberty is non-negotiable.
●​ (b) Equal opportunity for all.
●​ (c) Difference principle.
●​ It is valid as long as it benefits the weaker section.
●​ It creates scope for State intervention to benefit the marginalized.
●​ For example, Reservation, Direct Benefit Transfer, Dalit Capitalism, Subsidies, Stand Up
India, etc.
●​ Amartya Sen Idea of Justice (7:06 P.M.)
●​ Justice will not be served in the true sense by only focusing on resource distribution, as it
is neither sustainable nor advisable.
●​ It will make the individual dependent and will deny them the freedom to live the life of their
choice,
●​ He gave the idea of the 'Capability Approach'.
●​ His prescription was the investment in social infrastructure.
●​ The contemporary relevance of his theory is immense. We can find the relevance of this
theory in the given areas:
●​ (a) Human Capital Formation.
●​ (b) Demographic Dividend.
●​ (c) Sustainable Development Goals.
●​ (d) Longevity Dividend.
●​ (e) Healthy Ageing.
●​ (f) Women Empowerment.
●​ Often there is a debate about what constitutes justice. Hence, Amartya Sen uses a story
to illustrate the complexity of justice and challenges the idea of the absolute notion of
fairness and justice. For example, the flute story.
THE TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: RIGHT-BASED ETHICS
1
Summary

Ethics Class 17

THE CLASS STARTED WITH A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS TOPICS (05:01 PM)
RIGHT-BASED ETHICS (05:02 PM)
●​ Rights-based Ethics mean 'The moral worth of an action is determined by to what extent,
it infringes upon the rights of others'
●​ Rights:
●​ It is defined as an entitlement that is enjoyed by the individuals, recognized by the society,
backed and sanctioned by the state.
●​ Natural Rights:
●​ These are inherent rights, Universal, inalienable.
●​ They exist by virtue of being an individual.
●​ Ordained by the nature.
●​ Abstract
●​ Not codified.
●​ difficult to enforce and hold accountable.
HUMAN RIGHTS (05:11 PM)
●​ They are defined as basic minimum rights enjoyed by an individual.
●​ They are fundamental to the existence of an individual and with respect to a dignified life.
●​ The concept emerged in the post-World War period with the passage of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights in 1948.
●​ Contemporary Application of Rights-based Ethics:
●​ Development-induced displacement.
●​ Forced migration.
●​ Media trials.
●​ Marital rape.
●​ Custodial deaths.
●​ Capital Punishment.
●​ Naming and Shaming.
●​ Human trafficking, etc.
●​ One of the famous philosophers advocating rights-based ethics was John Locke.
●​ He was an advocate of freedom and governance by consent.
●​ According to John Locke, there are three inalienable natural rights:
●​ Life
●​ Liberty
●​ Property
APPROACH FOR ATTEMPTING QUOTATION-BASED QUESTIONS IN ETHICS (05:23 PM)
●​ Approach for the quotation-based ethics questions:
●​ Introduction:
●​ You can either paraphrase the given quote or define the key term in the quote.
●​ It mostly consists of an Interpretation of the question.
●​ you can give context or premise.
●​ You can start with an impactful anecdote.
 ●​ Body:
●​ It should have arguments, explanations, and examples.
●​ You can include the political, social, and ethical perspectives for a better explanation or
elaboration.
●​ Conclusion:
●​ Penultimate conclusion (Way Forward, Prescription)
●​ Ultimate Conclusion. (Inference)
●​ Practice Question: Given below are four quotations from great thinkers, What do
each of these quotations convey to you in the present context?
●​ a) "Judge your success by what you have to give up to get it" Dalai Lama.
●​ Approach:
●​ You can start with the definition of success.
●​ You can mention the various aspects of success and what parameters can be used for
judging the success.
●​ For Example: Attaining independence was a success for freedom fighters.
●​ b) "Every work has to pass through hundreds of difficulties before succeeding,
those who perceive will see the light sooner or later" Swami Vivekanand.
●​ Approach:
●​ In the above statement, Swami Vivekanand highlights the importance of perseverance.
●​ In history, there are various relevant examples like Sandeep Singh and his struggle,
India's Struggle for Independence.
●​ c) "The simplest acts of kindness are by far more powerful than a thousand heads
bowing in prayer" Mahatma Gandhi.
●​ Approach:
●​ In this quote Gandhi wants to establish ideal worship is more important than idol worship
and kindness is one of those ideals.
●​ You can mention a few aspects of kindness in the answer.
●​ Conclude as per the context.
●​ d) "Do not hate anybody because that hatred which comes out from you in the long
run will come back to you. If you love the love come back to you completing the
circle" Swami Vivekanand.
●​ The quote underscores that our actions have consequences, We should be aware that
positive actions will lead to positive rewards and negative will lead to negative rewards.
●​ You can support the above points with proper examples.
●​ Conclude as per the context.
APPLIED ETHICS (06:31 PM)
●​ Applied ethics, also called practical ethics, is the application of ethics to real-world
problems.
●​ It attempts to answer the question of how people should act in specific situations.
●​ Examples: Applied ethics deals with moral issues like – Abortion, pre-marital sex,
euthanasia, the death penalty, LGBTQ rights, war tactics, censorship, etc.
●​ Significance of Applied Ethics:
●​ It addresses the moral permissibility of specific actions and practices.
●​ It deals with difficult and controversial moral issues that people actually face in their
day-to-day lives.
●​ Applied ethics is more specific than normative ethics, (i.e. how people should behave)
●​ It is also different from metaethics, (a branch of philosophy that asks questions about
the nature of ethics such as, “What is morality?”)
 ●​ With a practical approach to ethics, people don’t need to agree on a moral theory. Instead,
they can agree to solutions to ethical dilemmas by reviewing the facts and related
harms of a specific situation. This is one of the key strengths of applied ethics.
●​ Applied ethics thus helps make the decision-making process easier, quick, and ethical,
particularly in the tricky situations of day-to-day life.
BIOETHICS (06:34 PM)
●​ Bioethics is a field within applied ethics that focuses on ethical issues that relate to
biology and biological systems.
●​ It addresses moral issues pertaining to:
●​ beginning of life issues such as abortion and surrogacy;
●​ end of life issues such as euthanasia; and
●​ medical research such as clinical trials
THE SYLLABUS FOR ETHICS IS COMPLETED.