PROGRAM: JHS EDUCATION
COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO LEARNING, TEACHING AND
APPLYING GEOMETRY AND STATISTIC
COURSE CODE: MATH 152
NAME OF TUTOR: [Link]. Vera Baffour Tweneboa
GROUP 6
Probability: Types, Theories, and
Practical Examples
Introduction
Probability is a branch of mathematics that studies the likelihood of
occurrence of uncertain events. It quantifies the degree of certainty or
uncertainty of outcomes in a random experiment. The value of probability
ranges from 0 (impossible event) to 1 (certain event). Probability is widely
used in fields such as mathematics, science, finance, statistics, and artificial
intelligence.
Theories of Probability
There are three main theoretical approaches to probability:
1. Classical Theory of Probability
Proposed by Pierre-Simon Laplace, this theory assumes all outcomes in a
sample space are equally likely. It works well in games of chance such as dice
and coin tosses. Formula: P(E) = (Number of favorable outcomes) ÷ (Total
number of equally likely outcomes).
2. Frequency Theory of Probability
Also known as empirical probability, this theory defines probability as the
relative frequency with which an event occurs in repeated trials of an
experiment. Formula: P(E) = (Number of times E occurs) ÷ (Number of trials).
3. Axiomatic Theory of Probability
Introduced by Andrey Kolmogorov in 1933, the axiomatic approach defines
probability using three axioms:
1. The probability of any event A is non-negative (P(A) ≥ 0).
2. The probability of the sample space S is 1 (P(S) = 1).
3. If A and B are mutually exclusive events, then P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B).
Types of Probability
The application of probability can be categorized into four major types:
1. Theoretical Probability
Calculated using reasoning and formulas without experiments.
Example: The probability of drawing a red card from a standard deck is 26/52
= 1/2.
2. Experimental Probability
Based on actual experiments and data.
Example: If a coin is tossed 200 times and lands on heads 98 times, P(Head)
= 98/200 = 0.49.
3. Subjective Probability
Based on personal judgment or experience, not precise data.
Example: An investor estimating a 70% chance of stock price increase.
4. Axiomatic Probability
Uses Kolmogorov’s axioms to generalize probability rules.
Practical Examples with Diagrams
Example 1: Tossing a Coin – Probability of getting a head is 1/2.
Example 2: Rolling a Die – Probability of getting a 3 is 1/6.
Example 3: Drawing a Card – Probability of drawing an Ace is 4/52 = 1/13.
Example 4: Tossing Two Coins – Probability of two heads is 1/4.
Importance of Probability
Probability is essential for analyzing uncertain situations. It is used in risk
management, quality control, genetics, weather forecasting, medical
diagnosis, business decision-making, and artificial intelligence. Understanding
probability helps individuals and organizations make rational and data-driven
choices.
References
Blitzstein, J. K., & Hwang, J. (2019). Introduction to probability (2nd ed.).
Chapman and Hall/CRC.
Grinstead, C. M., & Snell, J. L. (2012). Introduction to probability. American
Mathematical Society.
Ross, S. M. (2014). Introduction to probability models (11th ed.). Academic
Press.
NAME INDEX NUMBER SIIGNATURE
1. Boahen Elizabeth Serwaa 7400224
2. Anarfi Gifty Nkrumah 7379724
3. Asante, Raby Yaw Boateng 7387824
4. Asante, Abigail 7386624
5. Takyiwaa Margaret 7504824
6. Raymond Abobo 7345524
7. Bonsu Emmanuel Agyin 7404624