Body language

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Body language (disambiguation).
Body language is a kind of non verbal communication, where thoughts, intentions, or feelings
are expressed by physical behaviors, such as facial expressions, body posture, gestures, eye
movement, touch and the use of space. Body language exists in both animals and humans, but
this article focuses on interpretations of human body language. It is also known as kinesics.
Body language must not be confused with sign language, as sign languages are
full languages like spoken languages and have their own complex grammar systems, as well as
being able to exhibit the fundamental properties that exist in all languages. [1][2] Body language, on
the other hand, does not have a grammar and must be interpreted broadly, instead of having an
absolute meaning corresponding with a certain movement, so it is not a language like sign
language,[3] and is simply termed as a "language" due to popular culture.
In a community, there are agreed-upon interpretations of particular behavior. Interpretations may
vary from country to country, or culture to culture. On this note, there is controversy on whether
body language is universal. Body language, a subset of nonverbal communication, complements
verbal communication in social interaction. In fact some researchers conclude that nonverbal
communication accounts for the majority of information transmitted during interpersonal
interactions.[4] It helps to establish the relationship between two people and regulates interaction,
but can be ambiguous. Hence, it is crucial to accurately read body language to avoid
misunderstanding in social interactions.

Contents
[hide]

 1Physical movement
o 1.1Facial expression
o 1.2Body postures
o 1.3Gestures
o 1.4Handshakes
o 1.5Other types of physical movements
 2Other subcategories
o 2.1Oculesics
o 2.2Haptics
o 2.3Proxemics
 3Tone of voice
 4Universal vs. culture-specific
o 4.1Cultural Equivalence Model
o 4.2Cultural Advantage Model
 5Applications
o 5.1Instructional teaching
 5.1.1Second-language acquisition
 5.1.2Enhancing teaching
o 5.2Detecting deceit
 5.2.1Law enforcement
 5.2.2Poker
 6Kinesics
 7See also
 8References
Physical movement[edit]
Facial expression[edit]
Facial expression is integral when expressing emotions through the body. Combinations of eyes,
eyebrow, lips, nose, and cheek movements help form different moods of an individual (e.g.
happy, sad, depressed, angry, etc.).[5]
A few studies show that facial expression and bodily expression (i.e. body language) are
congruent when interpreting emotions.[6][7] Behavioural experiments have also shown that
recognition of facial expression is influenced by perceived bodily expression. This means that the
brain processes the other's facial and bodily expressions simultaneously.[6] Subjects in these
studies showed accuracy in judging emotions based on facial expression. This is because the
face and the body are normally seen together in their natural proportions and the emotional
signals from the face and body are well integrated.
Body postures[edit]
Emotions can also be detected through body postures. Research has shown that body postures
are more accurately recognised when an emotion is compared with a different or neutral
emotion.[8] For example, a person feeling angry would portray dominance over the other, and
his/her posture displays approach tendencies. Comparing this to a person feeling fearful: he/she
would feel weak, submissive and his/her posture would display avoidance tendencies, [8] the
opposite of an angry person.
Sitting or standing postures also indicate one’s emotions. A person sitting till the back of his/her
chair, leans forward with his/her head nodding along with the discussion implies that he/she is
open, relaxed and generally ready to listen. On the other hand, a person who has his/her legs
and arms crossed with the foot kicking slightly implies that he/she is feeling impatient and
emotionally detached from the discussion.[5]
In a standing discussion, a person stands with arms akimbo with feet pointed towards the
speaker could suggest that he/she is attentive and is interested in the conversation. However, a
small difference in this posture could mean a lot. For example, if the same person has his/her leg
crossed over the other, and places his/her entire balance on one leg, this suggests a more
casual attitude.[5]
Open and expansive nonverbal posturing can also have downstream effects on testosterone and
cortisol levels, which have clear implications for the study of human behavior [9]
Gestures[edit]
Gestures are movements made with body parts (e.g. hands, arms, fingers, head, legs) and they
may be voluntary or involuntary.[5] Arm gestures can be interpreted in several ways. In a
discussion, when one stands or sits with folded arms, this is normally not a welcoming gesture. It
could mean that he/she has a closed mind and is most likely unwilling to listen to the speaker’s
viewpoint. Another type of arm gesture also includes an arm crossed over the other,
demonstrating insecurity and a lack of confidence.[5]
Hand gestures often signify the state of well-being of the person making them. Relaxed hands
indicate confidence and self-assurance, while clenched hands may be interpreted as signs of
stress or anger. If a person is wringing his/her hands, this demonstrates nervousness and
anxiety.[5]
Finger gestures are also commonly used to exemplify one’s speech as well as denote the state
of well-being of the person making them. In certain cultures, pointing using one’s index finger is
deemed acceptable. However, pointing at a person may be viewed as aggressive in other
cultures - for example, people who share Hindu beliefs consider finger pointing offensive.
Instead, they point with their thumbs.[10] Likewise, the thumbs up gesture could show “OK” or
“good” in countries like the US, France and Germany. But this same gesture is insulting in other
countries like Iran, Bangladesh and Thailand, where it is the equivalent of showing the middle
finger in the US.[10]
Handshakes[edit]
Handshakes are regular greeting rituals and are commonly done on meeting, greeting, offering
congratulations or after the completion of an agreement. They usually indicate the level of
confidence and emotion level in people.[5] Studies have also categorised several handshake
styles,[10] e.g. the finger squeeze, the bone crusher (shaking hands too strongly), the limp fish
(shaking hands too weakly), etc. Handshakes are popular in the US and are appropriate for use
between men and women. However, in Muslim cultures, men may not shake hands or touch
women in any way and vice versa. Likewise, in Hindu cultures, Hindu men may never shake
hands with women. Instead, they greet women by placing their hands as if praying.
Other types of physical movements[edit]
Covering one’s mouth suggests suppression of feeling and perhaps uncertainty. This could also
mean that he/she is thinking hard and may be unsure of what to say next. [5]

What you communicate through your body language and nonverbal

signals affects how others see you, how well they like and respect you, and
whether or not they trust you.

Unfortunately, many people send confusing or negative nonverbal signals without even knowing
it. When this happens, both connection and trust are damaged.

Other subcategories[edit]
Oculesics[edit]
Main article: Oculesics
Oculesics, a subcategory of body language, is the study of eye movement, eye behavior, gaze,
and eye-related nonverbal communication. As a social or behavioral science, oculesics is a form
of nonverbal communication focusing on deriving meaning from eye behavior.[11] It is also crucial
to note that Oculesics is culturally dependent. For example, in traditional Anglo-Saxonculture,
avoiding eye contact usually portrays a lack of confidence, certainty, or truthfulness. [12] However,
in the Latino culture, direct or prolonged eye contact means that you are challenging the
individual with whom you are speaking or that you have a romantic interest in the person. [12] Also,
in many Asian cultures, prolonged eye contact may be a sign of anger or aggression.
Haptics[edit]
Main article: Haptic communication
Haptics, a subcategory of Body Language, is the study of touching and how it is used in
communication.[13] As such, handshakes, holding hands,back slapping, high fives, brushing up
against someone or pats all have meaning.[13]
Based on the Body Language Project,[13] touching is the most developed sense at birth and
formulates our initial views of the world. Touching can be used to sooth, for amusement during
play, to flirt, to expressing power and maintaining bonds between people such as with baby and
mother. Touching can carry distinct emotions and also show the intensity of those emotions.
Touch absent of other cues can signal anger, fear, disgust, love, gratitude and sympathy
depending on the length and type of touching that is performed. Many factors also contribute to
the meaning of touching such as the length of the touch and location on the body in which the
touching takes place.
Research has also shown that people can accurately decode distinct emotions by merely
watching others communicate via touch.[14]
Heslin outlines five haptic categories:[15]
Functional/professional which expresses task-orientation
Donald Walton[16] stated in his book that touching is the ultimate expression of closeness or
confidence between two people, but not seen often in business or formal relationships. Touching
stresses how special the message is that is being sent by the initiator. "If a word of praise is
accompanied by a touch on the shoulder, that’s the gold star on the ribbon," wrote Walton. [16]
Social/polite which expresses ritual interaction
A study by Jones and Yarbrough[17] regarded communication with touch as the most intimate and
involving form which helps people to keep good relationships with others. For example, Jones
and Yarbrough explained that strategic touching is a series of touching usually with an ulterior or
hidden motive thus making them seem to be using touch as a game to get someone to do
something for them.[17]
Friendship/warmth which expresses idiosyncratic relationship
Love/intimacy which expresses emotional attachment
Public touch can serve as a ‘tie sign’ that shows others that your partner is “taken”. [18] When a
couple is holding hands, putting their arms around each other, this is a ‘tie sign’ showing others
that they are together. The use of ‘tie signs’ are used more often by couples in the dating and
courtship stages than between their married counterparts according to Burgoon, Buller, and
Woodall.[19]
Sexual/arousal which expresses sexual intent.
The amount of touching that occurs within a culture is also culturally dependent.
Proxemics[edit]
Main article: Proxemics

Diagram of Edward T. Hall's personal reaction bubbles(1966), showing radius in feet

Another notable area in the nonverbal world of body language is that of spatial relationships,
which is also known as Proxemics. Introduced by Edward T. Hall in 1966, proxemics is the study
of measurable distances between people as they interact with one another. [20] In the book, Body
Language,[21] Julius Fast mentioned that the signals that we send or receive to others through
body language are reactions to others’ invasions of our personal territories, which links
Proxemics an important part of Body Language.
Hall also came up with four distinct zones in which most men operate:[20]
Intimate distance for embracing, touching or whispering
Close phase – less than 6 inches (15 cm)
Far phase – 6 to 18 inches (15 to 46 cm)
Personal distance for interactions among good friends or
family members
Close phase – 1.5 to 2.5 feet (46 to 76 cm)
Far phase – 2.5 to 4 feet (76 to 122 cm)
Social distance for interactions among
acquaintances
Close phase – 4 to 7 feet (1.2 to 2.1 m)
Far phase – 7 to 12 feet (2.1 to 3.7 m)
Public Distance used for public speaking
Close phase – 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 m)
Far phase – 25 feet (7.6 m) or more.
In addition to physical distance, the
level of intimacy between
conversants can be determined by
"socio-petal socio-fugal axis", or
the "angle formed by the axis of the
conversants' shoulders".[22]
Changing the distance between
two people can convey a desire for
intimacy, declare a lack of interest,
or increase/decrease domination.
[23]
It can also influence the body
language that is used. For
example, when people talk they
like to face each other. If forced to
sit side by side, their body
language will try to compensate for
this lack of eye-to-eye contact by
leaning in shoulder-to-shoulder.[23]
It is important to note that as with
other types of Body Language,
proximity range varies with culture.
Hall suggested that "physical
contact between two people ... can
be perfectly correct in one culture,
and absolutely taboo in another".
[24]
In Latin America, people who
may be complete strangers may
engage in very close contact. They
often greet one another by kissing
on the cheeks. North Americans,
on the other hand, prefer to shake
hands. While they have made
some physical contact with the
shaking of the hand, they still
maintain a certain amount of
physical space between the other
person.[25]
Tone of voice[edit]
Tone of voice is a combination of
spoken language and body
language.
The manner in which something is
said can affect how it should be
interpreted. Shouting, smiling, irony
and so on may add a layer of
meaning which is neither pure body
language nor speech.

Universal vs.
culture-specific[edit]
Scholars have long debated on
whether body language,
particularly facial expressions, are
universally understood. In Darwin’s
(1872) evolutionary theory, he
postulated that facial expressions
of emotion are inherited.[26] On the
other hand, scholars have
questioned if culture influences
one’s bodily expression of
emotions. Broadly, the theories can
be categorized into two models:
Cultural Equivalence
Model[edit]
The Cultural Equivalence Model
predicts that "individuals should be
equally accurate in understanding
the emotions of ingroup and
outgroup members" (Soto &
Levenson, 2009). This model is
rooted in Darwin’s (1872)
evolutionary theory, where he
noted that both humans and
animals share similar postural
expressions of emotions such as
anger/aggression, happiness, and
fear.[27] These similarities support
the evolution argument that social
animals (including humans) have a
natural ability to relay emotional
signals with one another, a notion
shared by several academics
(Chevalier-Skolnikoff, 1974;
Linnankoski, Laasko, Aul-anko, &
Leinonen, 1994). Where Darwin
notes similarity in expression
among animals and humans, the
Cultural Equivalence Model notes
similarity in expression across
cultures in humans, even though
they may be completely different.
One of the strongest pieces of
evidence that supports this model
was a study conducted by Ekman
and Friesen (1971), where
members of a preliterate tribe in
Papua New Guinea reliably
recognized the facial expressions
of individuals from the United
States. Culturally isolated and with
no exposure to US media, there
was no possibility of cross-cultural
transmission to the Papuan
tribesmen.[28]
Cultural Advantage
Model[edit]
On the other hand, the Cultural
Advantage Model predicts that
individuals of the same race
"process the visual characteristics
more accurately and efficiently than
other-race faces".[29] Other factors
that increase accurate
interpretation include familiarity
with nonverbal accents.[30]
There are numerous studies that
support both the Cultural
Equivalence Model and the
Cultural Advantage Model, but
reviewing the literature indicates
that there is a general consensus
that seven emotions are universally
recognized, regardless of cultural
background: happiness, surprise,
fear, anger, contempt, disgust, and
sadness.[31]
Recently, scholars have shown that
the expressions of pride and
shame are universal. Tracy and
Robins (2008) concluded that the
expression of pride includes an
expanded posture of the body with
the head tilted back, with a low-
intensity face and a non-
Duchenne smile (raising the corner
of the mouth). The expression of
shame includes the hiding of the
face, either by turning it down or
covering it with the hands.[28]

Applications[edit]
Fundamentally, body language is
seemed as an involuntary and
unconscious phenomena that adds
to the process of communication.
Despite that, there have been
certain areas where the conscious
harnessing of body language - both
in action and comprehension -
have been useful. The use of body
language has also seen an
increase in application and use
commercially, with large volumes
of books and guides published
designed to teach people how to
be conscious of body language,
and how to use it to benefit them in
certain scenarios.[21]
The use of body language can be
seen in a wide variety of fields.
Body language has seen
application in instructional teaching
in areas such as second-language
acquisition[32] and also to enhance
the teaching of subjects like
mathematics. A related use of body
language is as a substitution to
verbal language to people who lack
the ability to use that, be it because
of deafness or aphasia. Body
language has also been applied in
the process of detecting deceit
through micro-expressions, both in
law enforcement and even in the
world of poker.[33]
Instructional teaching[edit]
Second-language
acquisition[edit]
The importance of body language
in second-language
acquisition was inspired by the fact
that to successfully learn a
language is to achieve discourse,
strategic,
and sociolinguisticcompetencies.[34]
Sociolinguistic competence
includes understanding the body
language that aids the use of a
particular language. This is usually
also highly culturally influenced. As
such, a conscious ability to
recognize and even perform this
sort of body language is necessary
to achieve fluency in a language
beyond the discourse level.
The importance of body language
to verbal language use is the need
to eliminate ambiguity and
redundancy in comprehension.
[34]
Pennycook (1985) suggests to
limit the use of non-visual materials
to facilitate the teaching of a
second language to improve this
aspect of communication. He calls
this being not just bilingual but also
'bi-kinesic'.[35]
Enhancing teaching[edit]
Body language can be a useful aid
not only in teaching a second
language, but also in other areas.
The idea behind using it is as a
nonlinguistic input.[36] It can be used
to guide, hint, or urge a student
towards the right answer. This is
usually paired off with other verbal
methods of guiding the student, be
it through confirmation checks or
modified language use. Tai[37] in his
2014 paper provides a list of three
main characteristic of body
language and how they influence
teaching. The features are intuition,
communication, and suggestion.

 The intuitive feature of body

language used in teaching is
the exemplification of the
language, especially individual
words, through the use of
matching body language. For
example, when teaching about
the word "cry", teachers can
imitate a crying person. This
enables a deeper impression
which is able to lead to greater
understanding of the particular
word.[37]
 The communicative feature is
the ability of body language to
create an environment and
atmosphere that is able to
facilitate effective learning. A
holistic environment is more
productive for learning and the
acquisition for new knowledge.
[37]

 The suggestive feature of body

language uses body language
as a tool to create
opportunities for the students
to gain additional information
 about a particular concept or
word through pairing it with the
body language itself.[37]
Detecting deceit[edit]
Law enforcement[edit]
Body language has seen use in the
area of law enforcement. The
relevance of body language in this
area can be seen in the
numerous Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI) Law
Enforcement Bulletins[38][39] that have
included it in their articles. The
application of body language in law
enforcement goes both ways.
Members of law enforcement can
use body language to catch
unspoken clues by suspects or
even victims, this enables a more
calculated and more
comprehensive judgement of
people. The other side of body
language is that of the
investigators' themselves. The
body language of the members of
law enforcement might influence
the accuracy of eyewitness
accounts.[40]
Poker[edit]
Main article: Poker
The game of poker does not
consist only of the actual ability of
playing the game, but also the
competence of reading and
analyzing the body language of the
opponents. A key component of
poker is to be able to "cheat" the
opponents. To spot these cheats,
players must have the ability to
spot the individual "ticks" of their
opponents. Players also have to
look out for signs that an opponent
is doing well.

Kinesics[edit]
Main article: Kinesics
Kinesics is the study and
interpretation of nonverbal
communication related to the
movement of any part of the body
or the body as a whole;[41] in
layman's terms, it is the study of
body language. However, Ray
Birdwhistell, who is considered the
founder of this area of study, never
used the term body language, and
did not consider it appropriate. He
argued that what can be conveyed
with the body does not meet
the linguist's definition of language.
[3]

Birdwhistell pointed out that

"human gestures differ from those
of other animals in that they are
polysemic, that they can be
interpreted to have many different
meanings depending on the
communicative context in which
they are produced". And, he
"resisted the idea that 'body
language' could be deciphered in
some absolute fashion". He also
indicated that "every body
movement must be interpreted
broadly and in conjunction with
every other element in
communication".[3]
Despite that, body language is still
more widely used than kinesics.

See also[edit]
 Paul Ekman
 Allan Pease
 Facial Action Coding System

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