1111 ‫مقررترجمة‬

Words and some Common problems of non-equivalence

Equivalence at word level

?Is there a one-to-one relationship between word and meaning

This chapter discusses translation problems arising from lack of

equivalence at word level; what does a translator do when there is no
word in the target language which expresses the same meaning as the
source language word? But before we look at specific types of non-
equivalence and the various strategies which can be used for dealing with
them, it is important to establish what a word is, whether or not it is the
main unit of meaning in language, what kinds of meaning it can convey,
and how languages differ in the way they choose to express certain
.meanings but not others

If you consider a word such as rebuild , you will note that there are two
distinct elements of meaning in it: re and build – that is ‘to build again’.
The same applies to disbelieve, which may be paraphrased as ‘not to
believe’. Elements of meaning which are represented by several
orthographic words in one language, say English, maybe represented by
one orthographic word in another and vice versa. For instance, Black
board is written as one word in Arabic, as one word. This suggests that
there is no one-to-one correspondence between orthographic words and
elements of meaning within or across languages.

LEXICAL MEANING
The lexical meaning of a word or lexical unit may be thought of as the
specific value it has in a particular linguistic system and the ‘personality’
it acquires through usage within that system. It is rarely possible to
analyze a word, pattern or structure into distinct components of meaning;
the way in which language works is much too complex to allow that.
According to Cruse, we can distinguish four main types of meaning in
words and utterances (utterances being stretches of written or spoken
text): propositional meaning , expressive meaning , presupposed
meaning and evoked
meaning .
Propositional versus expressive meaning

The propositional meaning of a word or an utterance arises from the

relation between it and what it refers to or describes in a real or imaginary
world, as conceived by the speakers of the particular language to which
the word or utterance belongs. It is this type of meaning that provides the
basis on which we can judge an utterance as true or false. For instance,
the propositional meaning of shirt is ‘a piece of clothing worn on the
upper part of the body’. It would be inaccurate to use shirt , under normal
circumstances, to refer to a piece of clothing worn on the foot, such as a
sock . When a translation is described as ‘inaccurate’, it is often the
propositional meaning that is being called into question.

Expressive meaning cannot be judged as true or false. This is because

expressive meaning relates to the speaker’s 2 feelings or attitude rather
than to what words and utterances refer to. The difference between Don’t
complain and Don’t whinge does not lie in their propositional meanings
but in the expressiveness of whinge , which suggests that the speaker
finds the action annoying. Two or more words or utterances can therefore
have the same propositional meaning but differ in their expressive
meanings. The meaning of a word or lexical unit can be both
propositional and expressive, as in whinge ; propositional only, as in book
; or expressive only, for example bloody

Presupposed meaning

Presupposed meaning arises from co-occurrence restrictions, that is,

restrictions on what other words or expressions we expect to see before or
after a particular lexical unit. Collocational restrictions is an example of
presupposed meaning.
Collocational restrictions : these are semantically arbitrary restrictions
which do not follow logically from the propositional meaning of a word.
For instance, laws are broken in English, but in Arabic, they are
‘contradicted’. In English, teeth are brushed , but in German and Italian,
they are ‘polished’; in Polish, they are ‘washed’ and in Russian, they are
‘cleaned’. Because they are arbitrary, collocational restrictions tend to
show more variation across languages.

3- Evoked meaning
Evoked meaning arises from dialect and register variation. A dialect is a
variety of language which has currency within a specific community or
group of speakers. It may be classified on one of the following bases:
1. Geographical (e.g., a Scottish dialect or American as opposed to
British English: cf. the difference between lift and elevator ) .
2. Temporal (e.g., words and structures used by members of different age
groups within a community or words used at different periods in the
history of a language: cf. verily and really ) .

3. Social (words and structures used by members of different social

classes: cf. scent and perfume , napkin and serviette ) .

Register is a variety of language that a language user considers

appropriate to a specific situation.

Based on this discussion, we can now begin to outline some of the more
common types of non-equivalence which often pose difficulties for the
translator and some attested strategies for dealing with them. First, a word
of warning: The choice of a suitable equivalent in a given context
depends on a wide variety of factors. Some of these factors may be
strictly linguistic (for instance, collocations and idioms.)

Common problems of non-equivalence

The following are some common types of non-equivalence at word level,
with examples from various languages.

(a) Culture-specific concepts

The source-language word may express a concept which is totally
unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or
concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom or even a type
of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘culture-specific’. An
example of an abstract English concept which is notoriously difficult to
translate into other languages is that expressed by the word privacy . This
is a very ‘English’ concept and is rarely understood by people from other
cultures.

(b) The source-language concept is not lexicalized in the target

language

The source-language word may express a concept which is known in the

target culture but simply not lexicalized, that is not ‘allocated’ a target-
language word to express it. The word savoury has no equivalent in many
languages, although it expresses a concept which is easy to understand.
The adjective standard (meaning ‘ordinary, not extra’, as in standard
range of products ) also expresses a concept which is very accessible and
readily understood by most people, yet Arabic has no equivalent for it.
Landslide has no ready equivalent in many languages, although it simply
means ‘overwhelming majority’.

c-Differences in form

There is often no equivalent in the target language for a particular form in

the source text. Certain suffixes and prefixes which convey propositional
and other types of meaning in English often have no direct equivalents in
other languages. English has many couplets, such as employer/employee ,
trainer/trainee and payer/payee . It also makes frequent use of suffixes,
such as -ish (e.g., boyish ,hellish , greenish ) and -able (e.g., conceivable ,
retrievable , drinkable ). Arabic, for instance, has no ready mechanism
for producing such forms, and so they are often replaced by an
appropriate paraphrase, depending on the meaning they convey (e.g.,
retrievable as ‘can be retrieved’ and drinkable as ‘suitable for drinking’).

(d) The use of loan words in the source text

The use of loan words in the source text poses a special problem in
translation. Quite apart from their respective propositional meaning, loan
words such as au fait , chic , Auf Wiedersehen and alfresco in English are
often used for their prestige value, because they can add an air of
sophistication to the text or its subject matter.

These are some of the more common examples of non-equivalence

among languages and the problems they pose for translators.

Methods of Translation

1- Word-for-Word translation
This type of translation keeps the SL word order; words are translated out of
context according to their most common meaning. Such kind of translation
can be used as a preliminary translation step but it is not applied in real
translation tasks. The following lines are from The Secret Sharer by Joseph
Conrad with their translation into Arabic following the word-for-word
method.

On my right hand there were lines of fishing stakes resembling a mysterious

system of half-submerged bamboo fences.
‫على يميني يد كانت‬
‫خطوط الصيد حصص تشبه غموض نظام نصف مغمور لبامبو أسيجة‬.
Such translation is meaningless to an Arab reader since neither its
grammatical structure nor its semantics can help the reader make sense of
what he or she reads. An acceptable translation would be
‫وكانت على يميني خطوط ألعمدة الصيد تشبه نظاما غامضا من سياج الخيزران‬
‫نصف المغمورة‬
.
As we can see from the above example, word-for-word translation does not
take context into consideration. It might be helpful as a first step in the
translation but a great deal of editing and modifications have to be made in
order to convey the message to the TL reader. The translator has to make
sure that the translation follows the word order of the TL and that the choice
of semantic equivalents is carried out accurately. Word-for-word translation
can also be called interlinear

Provide a word-for-word translation for the following excerpt, then provide

an edited version.

They were new patients to me, all I had was the name, Olson. Please come down
as soon as you can, my daughter is very sick. When I arrived I was met by the
mother, a big startled looking woman, very clean and apologetic who merely said,
Is this the doctor? and let me in. In the back, she added. You must excuse us,
doctor, we have her in the kitchen where it is warm. It is very damp here
sometimes. The child was fully dressed and sitting on her father’s lap near the
kitchen table. He tried to get up, but I motioned for him not to bother, took off my
overcoat and started to look things over. I could see that they were all very
nervous, eyeing me up and down distrustfully. As often, in such cases, they
weren’t telling me more than they had to, it was up to me to tell them; that’s why
they were spending three dollars on me. The child was fairly eating me up with her
cold, steady eyes, and no expression to her face whatever.
[Link] (accessed 17 October
2013)Arabic translation
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Study the following Arabic word-for-word translation carefully and identify
its problematic aspects. John had not much affection for his mother and sisters,
and an antipathy to me. He bullied and punished me, not two or three times in the
week, nor once or twice in the day, but continually; every nerve I had feared him
and every morsel of flesh on my bones shrank when he comes near. There were
moments when I was bewildered by the terror he [Link] Eyre, Emily

‫ هو عذب وعاقب أنا ليس اثنان أو‬.‫جون كان ال كثيرا حب له أمه وأخواته وعداء لي‬
‫ كل عصب أنا‬،‫ لكن باستمرار‬،‫ ليسمرة أو اثنتين في اليوم‬،‫ثالث مرات في األسبوع‬
‫ كانت‬.‫لي خاف هو وكل جزء من اللحم على لي عظم ارتجف عندماهو جاء قريب‬
‫هناك لحظات عندما أنا كنت سيطرت بالرعب هو أوحى‬

.3 Provide a translation that makes sense of the previous excerpt.

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Study the following English word-for-word translation carefully, identify its
.problematic aspects and then provide an appropriate English translation

‫ فقرر ان يترك‬.‫حزن الصياد كثيرا النه كان يذهب للصيد كل يوم دون ان يأتي بشيء‬
‫المدينة ويهاجر الى مكان اخر لعل الحظ يبتسم له هذه المرة‬

.Sad the hunter much because was he go for hunting everyday without bringing
anything. So decided he to leave city and migrate to place another may be luck
smiles to him this time

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2-Literal translation
This type of translation preserves the grammatical structures of the SL
where they are translated into their nearest TL equivalents. It takes place
when the SL and TL share parallel structures. Words are translated out of
context paying no attention to their con-notative meanings. The following
example illustrates this point. To throw dust in the eyes. ‫يلقي التراب في‬
‫العيون‬The word ‘dust’ is translated literally as ‫ التراب‬while the equivalent
expression in Arabic is ‫ الرماد في العيوّن يذر‬where ‘dust’ is translated into
‫الرماد‬, ashes. This choice could be justified by the cultural as well as
ecological contexts that are different for both languages.

2.1 Identify examples of literal translation in the following sentences.1.I am

afraid I lost all saved data. We are back to square one.
‫ عدنا للمربع‬.‫أخشى أني فقدت كل البيانات المخزنة‬
..................................................................................................................‫األول‬
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.[Link] your horses; we still have plenty of time.
‫ لدينا الكثير من‬،‫الوقت أمسك خيولك‬
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.2. Provide correct translations for the sentences above.

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2.3 Provide a literal translation for the following excerpt.

As doctors often do I took a trial shot at it as a point of departure. Has she had a
sore throat? Both parents answered me together, No . . . No, she says her throat
don’t hurt her. Does your throat hurt you? Added the mother to the child. But the
little girl’s expression didn’t change nor did she move her eyes from my face.
Have you looked? I tried to, said the mother, but I couldn’t see

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Provide back translation for 2.3 and try to judge how accurate your literal
translation was.

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3- faithful translation
This method maintains a balance between the literal meaning of the SL
word and the TL syntactic structures. It sounds more reasonable as it takes
the context into consid-eration, aiming at producing more precise meaning
of the SL texts. Study the following quote by Shaw’s Back to Methuselah
(1921), Part 1, Act 1:‘You see things; and you say, “Why?” But I dream things
that never were; and I say, “Why not?”’It can be faithfully translated as
:‫أنت ترى األشياء وتقول لماذا؟ ولكني أحلم بأشياء لم توجد أبدا وأقول لم ال؟‬
3.1 Provide a faithful translation of the following quotes.1. For if the proper
study of mankind is man, it is evidently more sensible to occupy yourself with the
coherent, substantial and significant creatures of fiction than with the irrational
and shadowy figures of real life.W. Somerset Maugham (1874–1965), British
novelist and playwright[Link]
(accessed 12 March
2011)..................................................................................................................
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Read the Arabic translation below of the following poem and comment on
the strategy used for translation. Requiem By Robert Louis Stevenson
Under the wide and starry sky,

Dig the grave and let me lie.

Glad did I live and gladly die,

And I laid me down with a will.

This be the verse you grave for me:

[Link] (accessed 12 March 2011)

Arabic translation
‫تحت سماء رحبة مرصعة بالنجوم‬

‫قبري وتدعني أستلقي‬

ْ‫لتحفرسعيدا عشت وسعيدا أموت‬

‫ومعي أرقدت وصية‬

‫فلترثيني بهذه األبياْت‬

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4-Communicative translation
This type of translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of
the original text in such a way that both content and language are readily
acceptable and compre-hensible to the reader. It is particularly suitable when
translating conventional formu-lae or proverbs and it involves some levels
of cultural approximation.
Study the following example:
Diamonds cut diamonds.‫ال يفل الحديد إال الحديد‬.
Notice here that ‘diamonds’ is rendered by ‫ حديد‬which is equivalent to iron
in English. Literal translation would not convey the message here. In Arabic
‘diamond’ has posi-tive associations related to beauty and noble
characteristics while iron is associated with strength and physical power.
Translate the following English proverbs using communicative
translation.

1. A burnt child dreads the fire

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.2.A cat has nine lives

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[Link]’t count your chickens before they’re hatched

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[Link] bygones be bygones

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[Link] is a lottery

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5-Free translation
This strategy preserves the meaning of the original but uses natural
forms of the TL, including normal word order and syntax, so that the
translation can be naturally under-stood. It preserves the content at the
expense of the form, and it provides a longer para-phrase of the
original. It is a form of idiomatic translation that favours colloquialisms
and idioms which do not exist in the SL. The following is a part of
Cinderella and its translation into Arabic:

Cinderella had a wonderful time at the ball until she heard the first stroke of
midnight! She remembered what the fairy had said, and without a word of
goodbye she slipped from the Prince’s arms and ran down the steps. As she
ran she lost one of her slippers, but not for a moment did she dream of
stopping to pick it up! If the last stroke of midnight were to sound ... oh ...
what a disaster that would be! Out she fled and vanished into the night

. ‫أمضت سندريال وقتا في غاية المتعة في حفلة الرقص حتى سمعت دقات‬
‫الساعة تعلن حلول منتصف الليل فتذكرت ما قالته الجنية فانسلت من غير‬
‫ وبينما‬.‫بخاطركم وال مع السالمة بخلسة من بين يدي األمير ونزلت الدرج بسرعة‬
‫كانت تركض سقطت منها إحدى فردتي الحذاء لكنها لم تتوقف ولم تحدث نفسها‬
‫حتى بالتوقف ألنها إن فعلت ذلك فيا ويلها ويا سواد ليلها فركضت مسرعة‬
‫واختفت في الظالم‬. Notice that we have longer expressions in the TL. For
example, ‘a wonderful time’ is translated into ‫ في غاية المتعة‬instead of
‫ممتعا‬. Colloquial expressions are also used as illustrated in the following
examples.

Without a word of goodbye: ‫من غير بخاطركم وال مع السالمة‬

What a disaster would that be! ‫يا ويلها ويا سواد ليلها‬
 Translation of Economic texts
Features of economic discourse
Though economics is related to everyday language, it has its own
linguistic features:
sometimes the jargon of a specialist group seeps into the common
language of the wider community. This is particularly likely to
happen where the activities of that sub-group are fashionable or
impinge directly on the life of the wider community. (Katamba 2004:
168) Economic texts often present visual information linguistically,
making use of mathematical systems to represent economic facts.
For instance, they may use mathematical symbols, segmental
diagrams and tabular information, and other visual data (statistical
tables, maps and graphs). The language of economics in particular
relies on grammatical structures (e.g. conditionals, passive
structures, relative clauses and logical connectives) and rhetorical
functions (e.g. assumption, hypothesis, prediction, explanation and
generalisation).
Economic discourse is a global discourse. This globalisation has led
to the emergence
of many loan words. In English economic discourse, these loan
words are mainly
taken from French, Italian, German, Japanese, Greek and Spanish.

Neologism
Neologism is considered one of the most common challenges for
translators of economic
texts. It is defined as ‘newly coined lexical units or existing lexical units
that
acquire new sense’ (Newmark 1988a: 140). New terms are continuously
being created
and translators often cannot find available translations for them so they
have to come
up with their own

Metaphors
Another problem in economic discourse is related to the use of figures of
speech, puns
and polysemes. Economic discourse makes use of metaphors. Metaphors
used in economic
texts are classified into three types.

Terminology: marketing
Terminology is a challenging issue especially for the non-professional
translator. A
number of terms have specific meanings in economics but are vague and
general in
everyday language.
. Specific terms are identified and translated using specialised dictionaries
before the translator starts the actual translation process.
Marketing terminology is mainly found in the translation of brochures,
catalogues,
offers, advertisements, web pages, marketing and business reports,
marketing
news and business articles, and business correspondence in general.

15.1 Translate the following marketing extract into English. Then specify a list of
the
marketing terminologies used.

‫ هو‬،‫التسويق التي التسويق الشبكي وتعرف أيضا بالتجارة الشبكية أو البيع المباشر‬
‫المصطلح الذي يصف هيكل تستخدمها بعض الشركات كجزء من استراتيجيتها‬
‫ هيكل مصمم إلنشاء قوة في التسويق والمبيعات عن طريق‬.‫الشاملة للتسويق‬
‫ ليس فقط من خالل‬،‫إمكانية الربح للمروجين لمنتجات الشركة من خالل ترويجهم‬
‫ ولكن أيضا بالنسبة للمبيعات من المروجين اآلخرين‬،‫المبيعات الشخصية المباشرة‬
‫ وخلق شبكة من الموزعين والتسلسل الشبكي‬،‫الذين التحقوا بالعمل عن طريقهم‬
‫للمستويات المتعددة للربح في شكل شبكي‬
[Link] (accessed 5 August 2013)

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Terminology: investment
Investment discourse is used for companies with regard to benefits
returned from
various purchases. It covers various business documents such as
contracts, agreements
and documents related to insurance (health insurance, life insurance, car
insurance,
insurance of machinery and electronic sales, etc.). Investment written
discourse is
highly formal and is usually characterised by the use of passive, short
sentences, use
of directives and legal terminology. Accuracy is a very important issue
that should be
taken into consideration because any mistake in translation might have
serious legal
consequences.

Translate the following phrases into English

‫األضرار المادية والثاني هو المسؤولية‬1-

........................................................................ . ‫المدنية‬
‫ مبلغ‬.2-
.......................................................................................................... . ‫التحمل‬
.......
‫ اإلستهالك‬.3-
............................................................................................................ ‫العادي‬
‫ الخسائر‬.4-
............................................................................................................. ‫التبعية‬
..

Terminology: banking
Banking discourse involves the translation of annual reports,
prospectuses, bank statements,
investment marketing translation, macroeconomic survey translation,
equity
research translation, shareholder information, profit and loss reports,
insurance policy
translation, as well as banking, finance, and insurance websites. What
distinguishes
banking discourse from other economic discourse types is its heavy
reliance on figures
and statistics. Making use of TL-relevant templates facilitates the
translation process
by giving the translator more time to concentrate on the linguistic
message to be conveyed
rather than wasting time looking for a suitable presentation method.

Translate the following description of profit and loss statement into

Arabic.

What is a profit and loss statement?

The profit and loss statement is a summary of the financial performance of a
business over
time (monthly, quarterly or annually is most common). It reflects the past
performance
of the business and is the report most often used by small business owners to
track how
their business is performing.

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Terminology: accounting and audit

Accounting and audit translations include various documents such as

financial statements
(accounts statements, balances, memos, memoirs, treasury reports,
budget and
variance reports, audit reports, accounting software, accounting standards
and international
accounting standards), in addition to articles on accounting and
accounting
books.

Some exercises

Translated the following texts into English

‫انطلقت كل نظريات وآراء االقتصاديين من أن األساس في االقتصاد هو التوازن‬
‫ لكن الواقع العملي يتعارض مع ذلك؛ حيث لم يعد‬.‫ وأن االستثناء هو األزمات‬،‫واالستقرار‬
‫ حتى أصبحت القاعدة هى األزمات‬،‫هناك دولة في العالم اقتصادها مستقر تمامًا‬
‫ وصار االستثناء هو االستقرار‬،‫والمشاكل االقتصادية‬.
‫ أو زيادة‬،‫وتتمثل األزمات االقتصادية في انخفاض عائدات العمالت األجنبية في االقتصاد‬
‫ وقد تحدث‬،‫المدفوعات الخارجية إلى العالم الخارجي؛ نتيجة ارتفاع أسعار الواردات مثًال‬
‫ وتعود‬،‫ حيث تختلف العوامل المؤدية لكل منهما‬،‫أزمات اقتصادية مؤقتة أو أزمات دائمة‬
‫هذه األزمات إلى تغير أسعار السلع أو أسعار الصرف وكذلك للتغير في معدالت التضخم‬
‫ فإن األزمات قد تنشأ في أحد االقتصادات وتنتقل إلى اقتصادات‬،‫ وهكذا‬.‫وأسعار الفائدة‬
‫أخرى‬.
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‫وأضاف أن مناقشة موضوع التجارة والتنمية يكتسي أهمية خاصة على ضوء احداث اخيرة‬
‫ وبخاصة ازمة المالية الدولية التي أبرزت ألصت بين جميع مجات‬،‫على الصعيد العالمي‬
‫ و سيما بين التمويل والتجارة واستثمار‬،‫الحياة اقتصادية‬.
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Translated the following text into Arabic

Modules on the subject of trade and competition policy will continue to feature in the
secretariat's trade policy courses and regional trade policy courses.
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Personnel Education and Training: During the Academic years 2003-2004 and 2004-
2005 the Police Academy has included into their syllabus, in all education levels as
well as departments of advanced training and education of police staff) the subject of
trade in human beings.
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Translated the following texts into English

‫وبالنظر الى اهمية التي تعلقها الدول اطراف على موضوع التجارة في سياق التنمية‬
،‫ سيتولى المجلس نفسه معالجة هذا الموضوع)أ(؛ أما المواضيع اخرى‬،‫المستدامة‬
‫ وهي نفسها منظمة على نسق قطاعي‬،‫فتعالجها هيئات المجلس الفرعية المختلفة‬
.
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‫ أو قد يعني بموضوع التجارة أو‬،‫ يعرف القانون "المنتج" ليعني أي مادة‬،‫وعلى نطاق واسع‬
‫ وذلك فيما يتعلق بالمنتجات الغذائية أو غير الغذائية‬،‫التبادل التجاري‬.
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Translated the following texts into Arabic

The crisis itself has a number of dimensions but three in particular are crucial. The
first
is the build-up of debt, both corporate and household debt, but especially
household
debt. Linked with this is the likelihood of a return to international monetary
instability
and of the refusal of the rest of the world to fund US (and UK) trade deficits. The
third
factor is the effect of the ecological crisis on the world economy, which brings
with it the
prospect of an end to two decades of low commodity prices. However, these
should be
seen as medium-term developments, determining the underlying tensions within
which
more immediate changes take place.
A Marxist analysis of the crisis needs to be based on an analysis which can grasp
these
underlying structural factors, see how these play themselves out in surface
phenomena
and also understand the competing strategies of capital as it attempts to manage
the
crisis.

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[Link] (accessed 28 May
2011)
 Terminologies
Allocate :)‫ تخصيص (مبلغ معين‬/‫ تحديد‬/‫تقسيم‬
A stagnant market :‫سوق راكدة‬
Cut jobs :‫تخفيض العمالة‬
Pay freeze :‫تجميد األجور‬
Rebound :)‫ينهض (من عثرة أو إخفاق‬
Hike interest rate :)‫ يزيد (بصورة مفاجئة‬/‫يرفع‬
International Monetery Fund IMF :‫صندوق النقد الدولي‬
Merge to :‫تندمج مع‬
Over 16 years :‫ سنة‬16 ‫على مدى‬
Economics :‫علم االقتصاد‬
Economy :‫اقتصاد‬
Bases (always plural :‫أساس‬
Run counter to, Juxtapose to :‫يتعارض مع‬
Crisis :‫أزمة‬
Crises :‫أزمات‬
Equilibrium :‫توازن‬
Increasing, augmentation, rise, step up :‫زيادة‬
Payments :‫مدفوعات‬
Permanent, durable :‫دائم‬
Exchange rate :‫سعر الصرف‬
Inflation rate has increased by 2% :%2 ‫ارتفع معدل التضخم بنسبة‬

Translating Historical texts

‫ كان األسلوب الوحيد المتبع في األمم المتحدة هو أسلوب التقليدي الذي‬،١٩٨١ ‫ وقبل عام‬- ١١
‫يتمثل في ترجمة النصوص األصلية بصورة أولية على أيدي موظفي لغات مبتدئين‬
.‫ ثم مراجعتها بواسطة موظفين أقدم وأكثر خبرة)مراجعين(في دوائر اللغات‬،(‫نسبيا)مترجمين‬
‫ وأن توضع في اعتبار بصفة خاصة‬،‫)أ(استخدام وسائل لجمع النصوص غير إصدار مذكرة شفوية‬
‫اعباء التي يمكن أن تقع على عاتق الدول التي ليست لغاتها من لغات العمل في امم المتحدة‬
‫أو التي ليست لديها أية نصوص مترجمة إلى تلك اللغات؛‬

Before 1981, the traditional method of having original texts translated initially by relatively
junior language staff, the translators, and then revised by more senior and more
experienced members of the translation services, the revisers, was the only method used at
the United Nations. a) Exploitation of methods to collect the texts other than the issuance of
notes verbales, especially taking into account potential burdens imposed on those States
whose languages are not working languages of the United Nations or which do not have any
texts translated into such languages.