Transfer Function

The transfer function of a linear time-invariant system is defined as the Laplace transform of the
impulse response, with all the initial conditions set to zero.
Let G(s) denote the transfer function of a single-input, single-output (SISO) system, with input u(t),
output y(t), and impulse response g(t). The transfer function G(s) is defined as
G(s)=£[g(t)] (1)
The transfer function G(s) is related to the Laplace transform of the input and the output through
the following relation:

(2)
with all the initial conditions set to zero, and Y(s) and U(s) are the Laplace transforms of y(t) and
u(t), respectively.

Let us consider that the input-output relation of a linear time-invariant system is described by the
following nth-order differential equation with constant real coefficients:

(3)
To obtain the transfer function of the linear system that is represented by Eq. (3), we simply take the
Laplace transform on both sides of the equation and assume zero initial conditions. The result is

(4)

The transfer function between u(t) and y(t) is given by

(5)

The properties of the transfer function are summarized as follows:

• The transfer function is defined only for a linear time-invariant system. It is not defined for
nonlinear systems.
• The transfer function between an input variable and an output variable of a system is defined as the
Laplace transform of the impulse response. Alternately, the transfer function between a pair of input
and output variables is the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace transform of
the input.
• All initial conditions of the system are set to zero.
• The transfer function is independent of the input of the system.
• The transfer function of a continuous-data system is expressed only as a function of the complex
variable s. It is not a function of the real variable, time, or any other variable that is used as the
independent variable. For discrete-data systems modeled by difference equations, the transfer
function is a function of z when the z transform is used.
• Proper Transfer Functions

The transfer function in Eq. (5) is said to be strictly proper if the order of the denominator
polynomial is greater than that of the numerator polynomial (i.e., n > m). If n = m, the transfer
function is called proper. The transfer function is improper if m>n.

• Characteristic Equation
The characteristic equation of a linear system is defined as the equation obtained by setting the
denominator polynomial of the transfer function to zero. Thus, from Eq. (5), the characteristic
equation of the system described by Eq. (3) is

(6)

Later we shall show that the stability of linear, single-input, single-output systems is completely
governed by the roots of the characteristic equation.
 BLOCK DIAGRAMS
The block diagram modeling may provide control engineers with a better understanding of the
composition and interconnection of the components of a system. Or it can be used, together with
transfer functions, to describe the cause-and-effect relationships throughout the system.

For example, consider a simplified block diagram representation of the heating system in your
lecture room, shown in Fig. 3-1, where by setting a desired temperature, also defined as the
input, one can set off the furnace to provide heat to the room. The process is relatively
straightforward. The actual room temperature is also known as the output and is measured by a
sensor within the thermostat. A simple electronic circuit within the thermostat compares the
actual room temperature to the desired room temperature

Figure 3-1
(comparator). If the room temperature is below the desired temperature, an error voltage will be
generated. The error voltage acts as a switch to open the gas valve and turn on the furnace (or the
actuator). Opening the windows and the door in the classroom would cause heat loss and, naturally,
would disturb the heating process (disturbance). The room temperature is constantly monitored by
the output sensor. The process of sensing the output and comparing it with the input to establish an
error signal is known as feedback. Note that the error voltage here causes the furnace to turn on, and
the furnace would finally shut off when the error reaches zero.

As another example, consider the block diagram of Fig. 3-2 (a), which models an open loop dc-
motor speed-control system. The block diagram in this case simply shows how the system
components are interconnected, and no mathematical details are given. If the mathematical and
functional relationships of all the system elements are known, the block diagram can be used as a
tool for the analytic or computer solution of the system. In general, block diagrams can be used to
model linear as well as nonlinear systems.

Figure 3-2
For example, the input-output relations of the dc-motor control system may be represented by the
block diagram shown in Fig. 3-2 (b). In this figure, the input voltage to the motor is the output of
the power amplifier, which, realistically, has a nonlinear characteristic. If the motor is linear, or,
more appropriately, if it is operated in the linear region of its characteristics, its dynamics can be
represented by transfer functions. The nonlinear amplifier gain can only be described in time
domain and between the time variables vi(t) and va(t), Laplace transform variables do not apply to
nonlinear systems; hence, in this case, Vt(s) and Va(s) do not exist. However, if the magnitude of
vi(t) is limited to the linear range of the amplifier, then the amplifier can be regarded as linear, and
the amplifier may be described by the transfer function

where K is a constant, which is the slope of the linear region of the amplifier characteristics.
Alternatively, we can use signal-flow graphs or state diagrams to provide a graphical
representation of a control system.

Figure 3-2
Typical Elements of Block Diagrams in
Control Systems
We shall now define the block-diagram elements used frequently in control systems and the
related algebra. The common elements in block diagrams of most control systems include:
• Comparators
• Blocks representing individual component transfer functions, including:
• Reference sensor (or input sensor)
• Output sensor
• Actuator
• Controller
• Plant (the component whose variables are to be controlled)
• Input or reference signals
• Output signals
• Disturbance signal
• Feedback loops
Fig. 3-3 shows one configuration where these elements are interconnected. You may wish to
compare Fig. 3-1 or Fig. 3-2 to Fig. 3-3 to find the control terminology for each system.

Figure 3-3
• As a rule, each block represents an element in the control system, and each element can be
modeled by one or more equations. These equations are normally in the time domain or
preferably (because of ease in manipulation) in the Laplace domain. Once the block diagram of
a system is fully constructed, one can study individual components or the overall system
behavior

• One of the important components of a control system is the sensing and the electronic device
that acts as a junction point for signal comparisons- otherwise known as a comparator. In
general, these devices possess sensors and perform simple mathematical operations such as
addition and subtraction (such as the thermostat in Fig. 3-1).
Three examples of comparators are illustrated in Fig. 3-4. Note that the addition and subtraction
operations in Fig. 3-4 (a) and (b) are linear, so the input and output variables of these block-
diagram elements can be time-domain variables or Laplace-transform variables. Thus, in Fig. 3-4
(a), the block diagram implies

Figure 3-4
As mentioned earlier, blocks represent the equations of the system in time domain or the transfer
function of the system in the Laplace domain, as demonstrated in Fig. 3-5.

Figure 3-5

In Laplace domain, the following input-output relationship can b e written for t h e system in
Fig. 3-5:

If signal X(s) is t h e output and signal U(s) denotes the input, the transfer function of the
block in Fig. 3-5 is
 Block Diagram Reduction
The transfer function of a control system may be obtained by manipulation of its block diagram and by
its ultimate reduction into one block. For complicated block diagrams, it is often necessary to move a
comparator or a branch point to make the block diagram reduction process simpler. The two key
operations in this case are:
1. Consider the block diagram of two transfer functions G1(s) and G2(s) that are connected in series
shown in fig.. The transfer function G(s) of the overall system is the multiplication of transfer
functions of individual blocks.

Figure 3-6

Hence,
2. Consider a more complicated system of two transfer functions G\(s) and G2(s) that are connected in
parallel, as shown in Fig. 3-7. The transfer function G(s) of the overall system is the sum of transfer
functions of individual blocks

Hence, Figure 3-7

3. A feedback control system is also known a closed-loop system. A system may have multiple feedback
loops. Fig. 3-8 shows the block diagram of a linear feedback control system with a single feedback loop.
The following terminology is defined with reference to the diagram:
r(t), R(s) = reference input(command)
y(t), Y(s) = output (controlled variable)
B(t), B(s) = feedback signal
u(t), U(s) = actuating signal = error signal e(t),E(s), when H(s) = 1
H(s) = feedback transfer function
G(s)H(s) = L(s) = loop transfer function
G(s) = forward-path transfer function
M(s) = Y(s)/R(s) = closed-loop transfer function or system
transfer function
The closed-loop transfer function M{s) can be expressed
as a function of G(s) and H(s). From Fig. 3-8, we write
Figure 3-8
and

The actuating signal is written

Substituting Eq. (3-10) into Eq. (3-8) yields

Substituting Eq. (3-9) into Eq. (3-7) and then solving for Y(s)/R(s) gives the closed-loop transfer function

The feedback system in Fig. 3-8 is said to have a negative feedback loop because the comparator subtracts.
When the comparator adds the feedback, it is called positive feedback, and the transfer function Eq. (3-12)
becomes
4. Moving a branch point from P to Q, as shown
in Fig. 3-16(a) and Fig. 3-16(b). This
operation must be done such that the signals
Y(s) and B(s) are unaltered. In Fig. 3-16(a), we
have the following relations:

In Fig. 3-16(b), we have the following relations:

But
Figure 3-16
5. Moving a comparator, as shown in Fig. 3-17(a) and Fig. 3-17(b), should also be done such that the output
Y(s) is unaltered. In Fig. 3-17(a), we have the following relations:

In Fig. 3-17(b), we have the following relations:

So

Figure 3-17