C22
Research using twins – Reading 1
To biomedical researchers all over the world, twins offer a precious opportunity
to untangle the influence of genes and the environment - of nature and nurture.
Because identical twins come from a single fertilized egg that splits into two, they
share virtually the same genetic code. Any differences between them -one twin
having younger looking skin, for example - must be due to environmental factors
such as less time spent in the sun.
Alternatively, by comparing the experiences of identical twins with those of
fraternal twins, who come from separate eggs and share on average half their
DNA, researchers can quantify the extent to which our genes affect our lives. If
identical twins are more similar to each other with respect to an ailment than
fraternal twins are, then vulnerability to the disease must be rooted at least in
part in heredity.
These two lines of research - studying the differences between identical twins to
pinpoint the influence of environment, and comparing identical twins with
fraternal ones to measure the role of inheritance - have been crucial to
understanding the interplay of nature and nurture in determining our
personalities, behavior, and vulnerability to disease.
The idea of using twins to measure the influence of heredity dates back to 1875,
when the English scientist Francis Galton first suggested the approach (and
coined the phrase 'nature and nurture'). But twin studies took a surprising twist
in the 1980s, with the arrival of studies into identical twins who had been
separated at birth and reunited as adults. Over two decades 137 sets of twins
eventually visited Thomas Bouchard's lab in what became known as the
Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart. Numerous tests were carried out on the
twins, and they were each asked more than 15,000 questions.
Bouchard and his colleagues used this mountain of data to identify how far twins
were affected by their genetic makeup. The key to their approach was a statistical
concept called heritability. in broad terms, the heritability of a trait measures the
extent to which differences among members of a population can be explained by
differences in their genetics. And wherever Bouchard and other scientists looked,
it seemed, they found the invisible hand of genetic influence helping to shape our
lives.
Lately, however, twin studies have helped lead scientists to a radical new
conclusion: that nature and nurture are not the only elemental forces at work.
According to a recent field called epigenetics, there is a third factor also in play,
one that in some cases serves as a bridge between the environment and our
genes, and in others operates on its own to shape who we are.
Epigenetic processes are chemical reactions tied to neither nature nor nurture
but representing what researchers have called a 'third component'. These
reactions influence how our genetic code is expressed: how each gene is
strengthened or weakened, even turned on or off, to build our bones, brains and
all the other parts of our bodies.
If you think of our DNA as an immense piano keyboard and our genes as the keys
- each key symbolizing a segment of DNA responsible for a particular note, or
trait, and all the keys combining to make us who we are - then epigenetic
processes determine when and how each key can be struck, changing the tune
being played.
One way the study of epigenetics is revolutionizing our understanding of biology
is by revealing a mechanism by which the environment directly impacts on
genes. Studies of animals, for example, have shown that when a rat experiences
stress during pregnancy, it can cause epigenetic changes in a fetus that lead to
behavioral problems as the rodent grows up. Other epigenetic processes appear
to occur randomly, while others are normal, such as those that guide embryonic
cells as they become heart, brain, or liver cells, for example.
Geneticist Danielle Reed has worked with many twins over the years and thought
deeply about what twin studies have taught us. 'It's very clear when you look at
twins that much of what they share is hardwired,' she says. 'Many things about
them are absolutely the same and unalterable. But it's also clear, when you get to
know them, that other things about them are different. Epigenetics is the origin
of a lot of those differences, in my view.'
Reed credits Thomas Bouchard's work for today's surge in twin studies. 'He was
the trailblazer,' she says. 'We forget that 50 years ago things like heart disease
were thought to be caused entirely by lifestyle. Schizophrenia was thought to be
due to poor mothering. Twin studies have allowed us to be more reflective about
what people are actually born with and what's caused by experience.'
Having said that, Reed adds, the latest work in epigenetics promises to take our
understanding even further. 'What I like to say is that nature writes some things
in pencil and some things in pen,' she says. 'Things written in pen you can't
change. That's DNA. But things written in pencil you can. That's epigenetics. Now
that we're actually able to look at the DNA and see where the pencil writings are,
it's sort of a whole new world.'
Questions 1-4
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage
1?
In boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
1. There may be genetic causes for the differences in how young the skin of
identical twins looks.
2. Twins are at greater risk of developing certain illnesses than non-twins.
3. Bouchard advertised in newspapers for twins who had been separated at birth.
4. Epigenetic processes are different from both genetic and environmental
processes.
Questions 5-9
Look at the following statements (Questions 5-9) and the list of researchers
below.
Match each statement with the correct researcher, A, B or C.
Write the correct letter, A, B or C, in boxes 5-9 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
List of Researchers
A. Francis Galton
B. Thomas Bouchard
C. Danielie Reed
5. invented a term used to distinguish two factors affecting human characteristics
6. expressed the view that the study of epigenetics will increase our knowledge
7. developed a mathematical method of measuring genetic influences
8. pioneered research into genetics using twins
9. carried out research into twins who had lived apart
Questions 10-13
Complete the summary using the list of words, A-F, below.
Write the correct letter, A-F, in boxes 10-13 on your answer sheet.
Epigenetic processes
In epigenetic processes, 10 ................... influence the activity of our genes, for
example in creating our internal 11 ................... . The study of epigenetic
processes is uncovering a way in which our genes can be affected by
our 12 ................... . One example is that if a pregnant rat suffers stress, the new-
born rat may later show problems in its 13 .................... .
A. nurture
B. organs
C. code
D. chemicals
E. environment
F. behaviour
Endless Harvest – Reading 2
More than two hundred years ago, Russian explorers and fur hunters landed on
the Aleutian Islands, a volcanic archipelago in the North Pacific, and learned of a
land mass that lay farther to the north. The islands' native inhabitants called this
land mass Aleyska - the 'Great Land'; today, we know it as Alaska.
The forty-ninth state to join the United States of America (in 1959), Alaska is fully
one-fifth the size of the mainland 48 - states combined. It shares, with Canada,
the second, longest river system in North America and has over half the coastline
of the United States. The rivers feed into the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska - cold,
nutrient-rich waters which support tens of millions of seabirds, and over 400
species of fish, shellfish, crustaceans, and mollusks. Taking advantage of this rich
bounty, Alaska's commercial fisheries have developed into some of the largest in
the world.
According to the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G), Alaska's
commercial fisheries landed hundreds of thousarids of tonnes of shellfish and
herring, and well over a million tones of ground fish (cod, sole, perch and
pollock) in 2000. The true cultural heart and soul of Alaska's fisheries, "however,
is salmon. 'Salmon,' notes writer Susan Ewing in The Great Alaska Nature
Factbook, pump through Alaska like blood through a heart, bringing rhythmic,
circulating nourishment to land, animals and people.' The 'predictable abundance
of salmon allowed some native cultures to flourish,' and 'dying spankers" feed
bears, eagles, other animals, and ultimately the soil itself' All five species of
Pacific salmon - chinook, or king; chum, or dog; Coho, or silver; sockeye, or red;
and pink, or humpback - spawn in Alaskan waters, and 90% of all Pacific salmon
commercially caught in North America arc produced there. Indeed, if Alaska was
an independent nation, it would be the largest producer of wild salmon in the
world. During 2000, commercial catches of Pacific salmon in Alaska exceeded
320,000 tonnes, with an ex-vessel value of over $US260 million.
Catches have not always been so healthy. Between 1940 and 1959, over-fishing
led to crashes in salmon populations so severe that in 1953 Alaska was declared
a federal disaster area. With the onset of statehood, however, the State of Alaska
took over management of its own fisheries, guided by a state constitution which
mandates that Alaska's natural resources be managed on a sustainable basis. At
that time, statewide harvests totaled around 25 million salmon. Over the next
few- decades average catches steadily increased as a result of this policy of
sustainable management, until, during the 1990s, annual harvests were well in
excess of 100 million, and on several occasions over 200 million fish.
The primary reason for such increases is what is known as In-Season Abundance-
Based Management'. There are biologists throughout the state constantly
monitoring adult fish as they show up to spawn. The biologists sir. in streamside
counting towers, study sonar, watch from aeroplanes, and talk to fishermen. The
salmon season in Alaska is not pre-set. The fishermen know die approximate
time of year when they will be allowed to fish, but on any given day, one or more
field biologists in a particular area can put a halt to fishing. Even sport filing can
be brought to a halt It is this management mechanism that has allowed Alaska
salmon stocks - and, accordingly, Alaska salmon fisheries - to prosper, even as
salmon populations in the rest of the United States arc increasingly considered
threatened or even endangered.
In 1999, the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC)*** commissioned a review of the
Alaska salmon fishery. The Council, which was founded in 19%, certifies fisheries
that meet high environmental standards, enabling them to use a label that
recognises their environmental responsibility. The MSC has established a set of
criteria by which commercial fisheries can be judged. Recognising the potential
benefits of being identified as environmentally responsible, fisheries approach
the Council requesting to undergo tcertificationuon process. The MSC then
appoints a certification committee, composed of a panel of fisheries experts,
which gathers information and opinions from fishermen, biologists, government
officials, industry representatives, non-governmental organisations and others.
Some observers thought the Alaska salmon fisheries would not have any chance
of certification when, in the months leading up to MSC's final decision, salmon
runs throughout western Alaska - completely collapsed. In the Yukon and
Kuskokwim rivers, chinook and chum runs were probably the poorest since
statehood; subsistence communities throughout the region, who normally have
priority over commercial fishing, were devastated.
The crisis was completely unexpected, but researchers believe it had nothing to
do with impacts of fisheries. Rather, they contend, it was almost certainly the
result of climatic shifts, prompted in part by cumulative effects of the el nino/la
nina phenomenon on Pacific Ocean temperatures, culminating in a harsh winter
in which huge numbers of salmon eggs were frozen. It could have meant the end
as far as the certification process was concerned. However, the state reacted
quickly, closing down all fisheries, even those necessary for subsistence
purposes.
In September 2000, MSC announced that the Alaska salmon fisheries qualified
fop certification. Seven companies producing Alaska salmon were immediately
granted permission to display the MSC logo on their products. Certification is for
an initial period of five years, with an annual review to ensure dial the fishery is
continuing to meet the required standards.
* spawners: fish thai have released eggs
* spawn: release eggs
Questions 14-20
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading
Passage 2?
In boxes 14-20 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
14. The inhabitants of the Aleutian islands renamed their islands F
15. Alaska's fisheries are owned by some of the world's largest companies. NG
16. Life in Alaska is dependent on salmon.
17. Ninety per cent of all Pacific salmon caught are sockeye or pink salmon.
18. More than 320,000 tonnes of salmon were caught in Alaska in 2000. T
19. Between 1940 and 1959, there was a sharp decrease in Alaska's salmon
population. T
20. During the 1990s, the average number of salmon caught each year was 100
million. F
Questions 21-26
Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A-K. below.
Write the correct letter, A-K. in boxes 21-26 on your answer sheet.
21 In Alaska, biologists keep a check on adult fish
22 Biologists have the authority
23 In-Season Abundance-Based Management has allowed the Alaska salmon
fisheries
24 The Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) was established
25 As a result of the collapse of the salmon runs in 1999, the state decided
26 In September 2000, the MSC allowed seven Alaska salmon companies F
_________________________________________________
A to recognise fisheries that care for the environment.
B to be successful.
C to stop fish from spawning
D to set up environmental protection laws.
E to stop people fishing for sport.
F to label their products using the MSC logo.
G to ensure that fish numbers are sufficient to permit fishing.
H to assist the subsistence communities in the region.
I to freeze a huge number of salmon eggs.
J to deny certification to the Alaska fisheries.
K to close down all-fisheries.
The Development of Museums –
Reading 3
A The conviction that historical relics provide infallible testimony about the past
is rooted in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, when science was
regarded as objective and value free. As one writer observes: 'Although it is now
evident that artifacts are as easily altered as chronicles, public faith in their
veracity endures: a tangible relic seems ipso facto real! Such conviction was, until
recently, reflected in museum displays. Museums used to look — and some still
do — much like storage rooms of objects packed together in showcases: good for
scholars who wanted to study the subtle differences in design, but not for the
ordinary visitor. to whom lt all looked alike. Similarly, the information
accompanying the objects often made little sense to the lay visitor. The content
and format of explanations dated back to a time when the museum was the
exclusive domain of the scientific researcher.
B Recently, however, attitudes towards history and the way lt should be
presented have altered. The key word in heritage display is now 'experience the
more exciting the better and, if possible, involving all the senses. Good examples
of this approach ln the UK are the Jorvik Centre in York; the National Museum of
Photography, Elm and Television in Bradford; and the imperial War Museum in
London. In the US the trend emerged much earlier. Williamsburg has been a
prototype for many heritage developments in other parts of the world. No one
can predict where the process will end. On so-called heritage sites, the re-
enactment of historical events is increasingly popular, and computers will soon
provide virtual reality experiences, which will present visitors with a vivid image
of the period of their choice, in which they themselves can act as if part of the
historical environment. Such developments have been criticised as an intolerable
vulgarisation. but the success of many historical theme parks and similar
locations suggests that the majority of the public does not
share this opinion.
C In a related development, the sharp distinction between museum and heritage
sites on the one hand, and theme parks on the other. is gradually evaporating.
They already borrow ideas and concepts from one another. For example,
museums have adopted storylines for exhibitions, sites have accepted 'theming’
as a relevant tool, and theme parks are moving towards more authenticity and
research-based presentations in zoos, animals are no longer kept in cages, but in
great spaces, either ln the open air or in enormous greenhouses, such as the
jungle and desert environments .In Burgers' Zoo In Holland. This particular trend
is regarded as one of the major developments in the presentation of natural
history in the twentieth century.
D Theme parks are undergoing other changes, too, as they try to present more
serious social and cultural issues, and move away from fantasy. This
development is a response to market forces and, although museums and heritage
sites have a special. rather distinct, role to fullfil, they are also operating in a very
competitive environment, where visitors make choices on how and where to
spend their free time. Heritage and museum experts do not have to invent stories
and recreate historical environments to attract their visitors: their assets are
already in place. However, exhibits must be both based on artefacts and facts as
we know them, and attractively presented. Those who are professionally
engaged in the art of interpreting history are thus ln a difficult position, as they
must steer a narrow course between the demands of ’evidence' and
‘attractiveness especially given the increasing need in the heritage industry for
income generating activities.
E It could be claimed that in order to make everything in heritage more `real`
historical accuracy must be increasingly altered. For example, Pithecanthropus
erectus is depicted in an Indonesian museum with Malay facial features, because
this corresponds to public perceptions. Similarly, in the Museum of Natural
History in Washington, Neanderthal man is shown making a dominant gesture to
his wife. Such presentations tell us more about contemporary perceptions of the
world than about our ancestors. There is one compensation, however, for the
professionals who make these interpretations: If they did not provide the
interpretation, visitors would do it for themselves. based on their own ideas.
misconceptions and prejudices. And no matter how exciting the result, it would
contain a lot more bias than the presentations provided by experts.
F Human bias is inevitable, but another source of bias in the representation of
history has to do with the transitory nature of the materials themselves. The
simple fact is that not everything from history survives the historical process.
Castles, palaces and cathedrals have a longer lifespan than the dwellings of
ordinary people. The same applies to the famishing and other contents of the
premises. In a town like Leyden in Holland, which in the seventeenth century was
occupied by approximately the same number of inhabitants as today, people
lived within the walled town, an area more than five times smaller than modern
Leyden. In most of the houses, several families lived together in circumstances
beyond our imagination. Yet In museums, line period rooms give only an image of
the lifestyle of the upper class of that era. No wonder that people who stroll
around exhibitions are filled with nostalgia; the evidence in museums indicates
that life was so much better in the past. This notion is induced by the bias in its
representation in museums and heritage centers.
Questions 27-30
Reading Passage 3 has six paragraphs, A-F
Choose the correct heading for paragraphs B-E from the list of headings below
Write the correct number, i-vii, in boxes 27-30 on your answer sheet
List of Headings
i Commercial pressures on people in charge
ii Mixed views on current changes to museums
iii Interpreting the facts to meet visitor expectations
iv The international dimension
v Collections of factual evidence
vi Fewer differences between public attractions
vii Current reviews and suggestions
Example Answer
Paragraph A v
27. Paragraph B
28. Paragraph C
29. Paragraph D
30. Paragraph E
Questions 31-36
Choose the correct letter A. B. C or D.
Write the correct letter in boxes 31-36 on your answer sheet.
31. Compared with today's museums those of the past
A. did not present history in a detailed way.
B. were not primarily intended for the public.
C. were more clearly organized.
D. preserved items with greater care.
32. According to the writer, current trends in the heritage industry
A. emphasize personal involvement.
B. have their origins in York and London,
C. rely on computer images.
D. reflect minority tastes.
33. The writer says that museums. heritage sites and theme parks
A. often work in close partnership.
B. try to preserve separate identities.
C. have similar exhibits.
D. are less easy to distinguish than before.
34. The writer says that in preparing exhibits for museums, experts
A. should pursue a single objective.
B. have to do a certain amount of language translation.
C. should be free from commercial constraints.
D. have to balance conflicting priorities.
35. In paragraph E. the writer suggests that some museum exhibits
A. fall to match visitor expectations.
B. are based on the false assumptions of professionals.
C. reveal more about present beliefs than about the past.
D. allow visitors to make more use of their imagination.
36. The passage ends by noting that our view of history is biased because
A. we fail to use our imagination.
B. only very durable objects remain from the past.
C. we tend to ignore things that displease us.
D. museum exhibits focus too much on the local area.
Questions 37-40
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage
3?
In boxes 37-40 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
37. Consumers prefer theme parks which avoid serious issues.
38. More people visit museums than theme parks.
39. The boundaries of Leyden have changed little since the seventeenth century.
40. Museums can give a false impression of how life used to be.