1- General Introduction
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Design methods: WSD and USD
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1. Elastic Theory of Design (Working Stress Design - WSD)
Mathematically, the core principle of WSD can be expressed as:
Stress due to working loads ≤ Allowable Stress
Where:
Stress due to working loads is the stress calculated based on the actual loads the
structure is expected to experience.
Allowable Stress is the maximum permissible stress for the material, calculated as:
Allowable Stress = Material Strength / Factor of Safety
This design approach ensures that the actual working stresses in concrete and steel
remain below their respective permissible (or allowable) stress limits. These
permissible stresses are calculated by dividing the ultimate strength of the material by
an appropriate factor of safety (F.S.).
For steel:
F.S. × permissible stress ≤ 𝑓𝑦
For concrete:
F.S. × permissible stress ≤ 𝑓𝑐′
Typically, the factor of safety used for concrete is greater than that for steel. This is
because concrete is an anisotropic and non-homogeneous material, leading to greater
variability and uncertainty in its properties compared to steel.
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Case1: Uncracked of concrete section ( fct < fr)
yt
yb
𝑓𝑐 𝑓𝑠
𝜀𝑐 = = 𝜀𝑠 =
𝐸𝑐 𝐸𝑠
𝐸𝑠
𝑓𝑠 = 𝑓𝑐 = 𝑛 𝑓𝑐 ; 𝐸𝑐 = 4700√𝑓𝑐 ` ; 𝐸𝑠 = 200000 MPa
𝐸𝑐
i. Calculate the location of the neutral axis (yb; from bottom)
∑ 𝐴 𝑦`
yb = ∑ 𝐴
ii. Calculate stress allowable bending stresses (ASD) for uncracked
section
𝑀𝑦
𝑓𝑐 = 𝐼 𝑡 ; yt = kd
𝑀 𝑦𝑏
𝑓𝑐𝑡 = 𝐼
𝑀 𝑦𝑠
𝑓𝑠 = 𝑛 𝑓𝑐 = 𝑛
𝐼
iii. Calculate crack limit: 𝑓𝑟 = 0.62 √𝑓𝑐 ` ; fct < fr
𝑓𝑟 𝐼
Cracking moment: 𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 𝑦𝑏
iv. Calculate moment of inertia about neutral axis
𝑏 ℎ3
I= + ∑ 𝐴𝑑2
12
𝑏 ℎ3 ℎ 2
I= 12
+ 𝑏ℎ (𝑦𝑏 − 2
) + (𝑛 − 1)𝐴𝑠 (𝑑 − 𝑦𝑏 )2
Case2: Cracked of concrete section ( fct > fr)
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i) Calculate allowable stress
fc = 0.45 fc`
fs 0.6 fy
ii) To determine the location of the N.A. (kd from top), the moment of
the tension area about the axis is set equal to the moment of the
𝑏 (𝑘𝑑)2
compression area: − 𝑛 𝐴𝑠 (𝑑 − 𝑘𝑑) = 0
2
iii) Calculate lever arm (jd)
𝑘𝑑 𝑘
jd = d − 3 → j =1 − 3
iv) Calculate equilibrium forces and moments
1
C = 2 𝑓𝑐 𝑏 𝑘𝑑, T = As fs
1
M = C jd = 2 𝑓𝑐 𝑏 𝑘𝑑 , M = T jd = As fs jd
v) Calculate moment of inertia about neutral axis (bottom axis)
𝑏 (𝑘𝑑)3
I = 3 + 𝑛𝐴𝑠 (𝑑 − 𝑘𝑑)2
𝑘𝑑 𝑑 − 𝑘𝑑 𝑓𝑐
= →𝑘=
𝑓𝑐 𝑓𝑠 /𝑛 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑠 /𝑛
2. Load Factor Design (Ultimate Strength Design - USD)
The fundamental principle of USD can be expressed as:
Factored Load ≤ Design Strength
Where:
Factored Load is the service load multiplied by a load factor. For example: 1.2(Dead
Load) + 1.6(Live Load)
Design Strength is the nominal strength of the member multiplied by a strength
reduction factor (φ).
*Design Strength = φ * Nominal Strength*
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𝑎 As fy
Mu = F As fy (d − 2 ) → a = 0.85 fc` b ; assume F= 0.9
𝐴 𝑓𝑦
Mu = F As fy (d − 1.7𝑠𝑓𝑐` )
𝑏
0.25 √𝑓𝑐` 1.4
𝐴s,min = 𝑏𝑑≥ 𝑏 𝑑 (larger value controlled) (ACI code 9.61)
𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑦
𝑓𝑐` 0.003 𝑓𝑦
𝐴s,max = 0.85 𝛽1 b d; 𝜀𝑦 = ; 𝐸𝑠 = 200000 MPa;
𝑓𝑦 𝜀𝑦 +0.006 𝐸𝑠
𝛽1 (ACI code [Link])
𝛽1 = 0.85 for fc` ≤ 28 𝑀𝑃𝑎
0.05 (𝑓𝑐` − 28)
𝛽1 = 0.85 − for 28 MPa ≥fc` ≤ 55 𝑀𝑃𝑎
7
𝛽1 = 0.65 for fc` > 55 𝑀𝑃𝑎
or
C=T
0.85 fc` a b = As fy
a = 𝛽1 c → c = a/𝛽1
𝑑−𝑐
𝜀𝑡 = 𝑐 * 𝜀𝑢
𝜀𝑡 > 𝜀𝑦 + 0.003 (Tension controls) (ACI code 21.2.2)
𝑓
Or use equation: 𝑀𝑢 = 𝜙 𝜌 𝑏 𝑑2 𝑓𝑦 (1 − 0.59 𝜌 𝑓𝑦`)
𝑐
1 2𝑚𝑅
Or use equation : 𝜌 = 𝑚 (1 − √1 − )
𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑢 𝑓𝑦
𝑅= ; 𝑚=
0.9𝑏𝑑2 0.85 𝑓𝑐`
0.25 √𝑓𝑐` 1.4
𝜌min = 𝑓𝑦
≥ 𝑓𝑦
(larger value controlled)
𝑓𝑐` 0.003 𝑓𝑦
𝜌max = 0.85 𝛽1 ; 𝜀𝑦 = ; 𝐸𝑠 = 200000 MPa
𝑓𝑦 𝜀𝑦 +0.006 𝐸𝑠
𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝜌𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 < 𝜌𝑚𝑎𝑥 (Tension controls)
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Class activity1//
Given the beam with material properties of fc' = 21 MPa and fy = 350 MPa
(db =F 25 mm for the main reinforcement; and ds = F 10 for the web reinforcement),
calculate the followings:
1- Allowable resisting moment (ASD) for cracked section
2- Ultimate moment capacity
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Class activity2//
Practical understanding of the ACI Code:
➢ Strength reduction factors (ACI code 21.2)
➢ Load factors and combinations (ACI code 5.3)
➢ Deflection control and minimum depth (ACI code 9.3)
➢ Equivalent rectangular concrete stress distribution (ACI code [Link])
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