Soran University 9/30/2024

Soran University
Petroleum Engineering Department

INTRODUCTION TO PETROLEUM
ENGINEERING

2024
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Soran University
Petroleum Engineering Department

LECTURE #3
RESERVOIR FLUIDS
Fenk A Sulaiman

2024
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Introduction

 A key question to ask upon discovering oil and gas is, “How much is there?”

 In addition to oil or gas, there will be water and probably some gas dissolved in the liquids.

 Gas also may appear as a separate phase along with oil.

 Properties of these fluids are used to determine their amounts in a formation and their fluid
flow characteristics

Origin of hydrocarbon

 The details of the formation of oil and gas are largely unknown.

 From about 1860 to 1960, some debate centered on whether these fluids derived from

biological or nonbiological sources.

 Geochemical analysis has uncovered many molecules in oils that share structure with

chemicals in living organisms.

 These molecules (biomarkers) are fossil remains of life from millions of years ago.

 Hence, it is generally accepted that oil and gas have biological origin.

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Formation of petroleum

 After the sediment was buried

under many additional layers of
sediment, oil and gas were formed
by bacterial action in the anaerobic
conditions of the sediment and
subsequent thermal processes.

Reasons for oil compositional variations

 The compositions of the fluids in the source rock

depend on :

1. The type of the organisms that were present in the

original sediment.

2. The temperature history.

 The processes of biological and thermal maturation

vary, depending on the type of organisms and
temperature history.

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What happened to the formed oil?

 Some oil and gas may remain in the original sediment, which is also known as source
rock.

 Much of oil has migrated upward as a result of buoyancy effects.

 Some of the upward migrating fluid was trapped by impermeable formations.

 The remainder continued migrating to the surface where it dissipated.

 Accumulation of oil and gas in a trap forms a reservoir, which is the target of modern
exploration activities.

Common oil and gas forms

1. Extra Heavy
2. Heavy
3. Black
4. Volatile
5. Condensate

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Other Oil forms

 Tar  In the Athabasca oil sands of northern Alberta

(Canada)
 Gilsonite  Northeastern Utah (USA)- largest molecules
found in oils
 Natural gas hydrates are solids formed when water and
gas mix at low temperatures and high pressures, such as
in the oceans.
 A smelly wax mined from fractured formations.
 Gas associated with most coal formations was
generated by thermal maturation of the coal, which was
formed from compressed plant matter.
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Oil & gas classification

 Classification dependents on the relative amount of different kinds of hydrocarbon

molecules:

a) Paraffin molecules such as methane, ethane, and propane have a single bond
between carbon atoms and are considered saturated hydrocarbons.

 Paraffins have the general chemical formula CnH2n+2

b) Naphthene have the general chemical formula CnH2n and are saturated
hydrocarbons with a ringed structure, as in cyclopentane.

 The term “saturated” indicates that all carbon-carbon bonds are single bonds.

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Oil & gas classification

c) Unsaturated hydrocarbons have at least one double or triple bond.

 Aromatics are unsaturated hydrocarbons with a ringed structure.

 Aromatics are relatively stable and unreactive because of their unique ring structure.

 Benzene is a well‐known example of an aromatic.

Naphthene
Aromatic

Paraffin
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Oil & gas classification

 Oils and gases are mixtures of predominantly hydrocarbon molecules with some
inorganic molecules, such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide.

 Oils and gases are called sweet  if they contain only negligible amounts of sulfur
compounds such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S) or mercaptans.

 Oils and gases are called sour  If they contain sulfur compounds such as H2S or a
mercaptan.

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Oil & gas classification

 The composition of a fluid refers to the types and amounts of molecules that
comprise the fluid.

 Oil is a mixture of hydrocarbon compounds and minor amounts of inorganic

molecules such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen.

 In situ water usually contains dissolved solids and dissolved gases.

 The relative amount of each component in a mixture may be expressed in such

units as volume fraction, weight fraction, or molar fraction

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Oil & gas classification

 Classification dependents on composition, temperature, and

pressure:
a) Natural gas  is typically methane with lesser amounts of
heavier hydrocarbon molecules like ethane, propane, and
butanes
b) Oil  is a liquid mixture of some natural gas dissolved in
greater amounts of heavier hydrocarbons with carbon
numbers up to about 60.
c) Asphaltenes and waxes  the largest hydrocarbon
molecules in oil, can precipitate as solids under some Composition of an oil sample
conditions.

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Oil & gas classification

P–T diagram for ethane

 The gas-liquid-solid phase behavior of a petroleum
sample is often shown in a pressure- temperature
(P–T) diagram.

 Ethane exists as a gas below the vapor pressure

curve.

 Ethane is liquid at 80 °F and 800 psi

 Ethane is gas at 80 °F and 300 psi

 If ethane exists at a temperature and pressure

above the critical point  there is no way to
distinguish between liquid and gas, and it is called
a supercritical fluid.
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Oil & gas classification

 Anywhere inside the phase envelope, P–T diagrams

there are two phases: gas and liquid.

 Only one phase exists outside the phase

envelope.

 Liquid exists in the P–T region above the

BP curve.

 Elsewhere outside the phase envelope

(below DP curve)  the fluid is a gas

 For example, at 350 F and 200 psia, the

fluid is gaseous, while at 350 F and 1200
psia, the fluid is liquid.
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Oil & gas classification

 Reservoir pressure is initially greater Comparison of vapor pressure curves for ethane and
than BP pressure, which is the n‐heptane to the phase envelope for a mixture of 59
mol% ethane and 41 mol% n‐heptane.
pressure on the BP pressure curve at
reservoir temperature.
 Production of oil will result in the
decline of reservoir pressure.
 Reservoir temperature does not
change significantly, if at all, and can
be considered constant.
 When reservoir pressure declines
below BP pressure, the remaining
hydrocarbon mixture enters the two-
phase gas-oil region where both an oil
phase and a gas phase coexist.
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Oil & gas classification

 Classifications of oils and gases using pressure-temperature diagrams:

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Oil & gas classification

 Classifications of oils and gases using pressure-temperature diagrams:

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Oil & gas classification related definitions

 Pressure is defined as normal force divided by the area to which it is applied.

Common units of pressure include pounds/in2 or psi, pascals (Newtons/m2), atmospheres,

and bars.

 Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of a system.

Units: Fahrenheit and Celsius scales

The relationship between these scales is:

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Oil & gas classification related definitions

 Some applications, such as equations of state, require the use of absolute temperature
expressed in Kelvin or Rankine degrees.

 The absolute temperature scale in degrees Kelvin is related to the Celsius scale by:

 The absolute temperature scale in degrees Rankine is related to the Fahrenheit scale by:

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Oil & gas classification related definitions

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Oil & gas classification related definitions

 Formation Volume Factor is the volume of oil swells when gas is dissolved in the oil.

 This ratio is expressed as reservoir volume divided by stock tank volume.

 For example: - FVF of 1.5 RB/STB  for every barrel of oil produced to the stock tank, 1.5 barrels
were taken from the reservoir.

 Usually, most of the change in volume from stock tank to reservoir results from the volume of gas
dissolved in the oil.

 FVF for oil usually ranges from 1 to 2 RB/STB.

 FVF for water is usually about 1 RB/STB because gas is much less soluble in water than in oil.

 Gas FVF varies over a wider range than oil FVF because gas volume is more sensitive to pressure.

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Oil & gas classification related definitions

 The Formation Volume Factor of reservoir gas (Bg) can be estimated using the ideal gas
law:

 To improve the estimate of Bg  the real gas law should be used in place of the ideal gas
law:

Where,
Z is the dimensionless gas compressibility factor
R is the gas constant
n is the number of moles of gas in volume V at pressure p
and temperature T.
The gas is an ideal gas if Z = 1 & a real gas if ≠ 1Z .

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Oil & gas classification

 Classification of oils
and gases by generally
available properties

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Sources of fluid data

 The most common tests used for measuring fluid properties:

 Constant composition expansion (CCE)
 Differential liberation (DL)
 Separator tests
 Constant composition expansion (CCE)
 A CCE test provides information about pressure–volume behavior of a fluid without
changes in fluid composition.
 The CCE test begins with a sample of reservoir fluid in a high‐pressure cell at reservoir
temperature and at a pressure in excess of the reservoir pressure.

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Sources of fluid data

 Constant composition expansion (CCE)
 The cell pressure is lowered in small increments,
and the change in volume at each pressure is
recorded.
 The procedure is repeated until the cell pressure is
reduced to a pressure that is considerably lower
than the saturation pressure.
 The original composition of the fluid in the cell
does not change at any time during the test because
no material is removed from the cell.
 The fluid may be either oil or a gas with
condensate:
 If the fluid is oil., the saturation pressure is the BP
pressure.
 If the fluid is a gas with condensate, the saturation
pressure is the DP pressure.
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Sources of fluid data

 Constant composition expansion (CCE)

 The properties that can be obtained include:
 Bubble Point Pressure: The pressure at which the first gas bubble comes out of solution in the oil. It is a
critical parameter for reservoir and production management.
 Oil Formation Volume Factor (Bo): The ratio of the volume of oil at reservoir conditions to the volume of
oil at standard surface conditions. It indicates how much oil will shrink when brought to the surface.
 Gas-Oil Ratio (GOR): The ratio of the volume of gas that evolves from the oil at standard conditions to the
volume of oil. This helps in understanding the phase behavior of the reservoir fluids.
 Oil Compressibility: The ability of the oil to compress as pressure decreases. This is important for estimating oil
recovery and reservoir performance under pressure depletion.
 Isothermal Compressibility of Oil: This measures how much the oil volume changes with pressure at constant
temperature. It helps in understanding how the reservoir fluid reacts to pressure changes.
 Saturation Pressure: The pressure at which the fluid transitions from single-phase (liquid) to two-phase (oil and gas) as
pressure decreases.
 These parameters are essential for reservoir modeling, production forecasts, and designing production
equipment.
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Sources of fluid data

 Differential liberation (DL)

 The DL test is used to determine the
liberation of gas from live oil, that is, oil
containing dissolved gas.
 A live oil sample is placed in a PVT cell at
reservoir temperature and BP pressure.
 The pressure is lowered in small increments
and the evolved gas is removed at each stage.
 The volume of the evolved gas and the
volume of oil remaining in the cell are
recorded.

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Sources of fluid data

 Differential liberation (DL)

 The properties obtained from the DL test are critical for understanding fluid behavior in the reservoir and planning production
strategies.
 Here are the main oil properties that can be obtained:
1. Gas-Oil Ratio (GOR)
2. Oil Formation Volume Factor (Bo)
3. Oil Viscosity: The viscosity of the oil at each pressure step is measured. As gas comes out of solution, the oil becomes denser
and more viscous, impacting flow characteristics.
4. Gas Compressibility (Cg): The compressibility of the liberated gas can also be measured, helping to understand the gas's
behavior as it separates from the oil at different pressures.
5. Gas Formation Volume Factor (Bg): This factor represents the change in gas volume as it is liberated from the oil under
different pressure conditions. It helps in calculating how much gas can be produced along with the oil.
6. Oil Density: The density of the oil at each pressure is recorded as gas is liberated. As the gas escapes, the oil's density
increases.
 The DL test mimics how gas separates from oil under production conditions, and the properties it yields are crucial for
predicting oil recovery and optimizing production strategies.
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Sources of fluid data

 Separator tests

 The separator test is used to study the behavior of a fluid as it flashes from reservoir to
surface conditions.

 A flash is the one‐step change from a relatively high‐pressure and high‐temperature

environment to a relatively low‐pressure and low‐temperature environment.

 The primary difference between a flash and a differential process is the magnitude of the
pressure differential between stages.

 The pressure differential is generally much smaller in the differential process than in the
flash process.
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Sources of fluid data

 The PVT cell in a separator test is

charged with a carefully measured
Separator tests
volume of reservoir fluid at reservoir
temperature and saturation pressure.
 The cell pressure and temperature are
then changed.
 Each change in pressure and temperature
corresponds to a separator stage, and one
or more stages may be used in the test.
 The volume of gas from each separation
stage and the volume of the liquid
remaining in the last stage are measured.

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Sources of fluid data

 The following key oil properties can be obtained from a separator test:
1. Gas-Oil Ratio (GOR):
2. Oil Formation Volume Factor (Bo):
3. Gas Formation Volume Factor (Bg):
4. Oil Shrinkage Factor:
As oil passes through separators, its volume reduces due to gas liberation. The shrinkage factor accounts for the reduction in oil volume between reservoir and surface
conditions.

5. API Gravity of Oil:

The API gravity is measured after separation, indicating the density of the oil at surface conditions. It helps classify the oil as light, medium, or heavy.

6. Gas Specific Gravity:

The specific gravity of the gas separated from oil is measured, providing insights into the composition and quality of the gas.

7. Stock-Tank Oil Properties:

After separation, the properties of the stock-tank oil, including volume, density, and composition, are measured. This represents the oil that is ultimately sold or refined.

 These properties are crucial for reservoir and production engineers to optimize surface processing, design production facilities,
and estimate the amount of recoverable hydrocarbons.

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The Oil Initially in Place (OIIP)

 The Oil Initially in Place (OIIP), also known as Original Oil in Place (OOIP), is the total
quantity of crude oil that is estimated to be in a reservoir before production starts. The most
common formula to calculate this is derived from the volumetric method:

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The Oil Initially in Place (OIIP)

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