EEEN 462 – ANALOGUE COMMUNICATION

AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM) STUDY GUIDE

1. INTRODUCTION
Amplitude Modulation (AM) is an analogue modulation technique where the amplitude of a
high-frequency carrier wave is varied in proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of a lower-
frequency message (modulating) signal. It's fundamental in radio broadcasting (AM radio) and
forms the basis for understanding many other modulation schemes.
1. Signals & Systems:
o Continuous-Time (CT) vs. Discrete-Time (DT) signals.
o Periodic vs. Aperiodic signals.
o Basic signal operations (scaling, shifting, addition, multiplication).
o Concept of frequency (Hz).
2. Fourier Analysis:
o Understanding the frequency domain representation of a signal (Fourier
Transform - FT).
o Concept of bandwidth (BW) - the range of frequencies a signal occupies.
o Spectrum of a pure sinusoid (impulse at ±f_c).
o Spectrum of a baseband message signal (occupying 0 to f_m Hz).
3. Need for Modulation:
o Antenna size proportional to wavelength (λ = c/f). Low-frequency signals require
impractical antenna sizes.
o Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): Multiple signals transmitted
simultaneously over the same medium using different carrier frequencies.
o Ease of radiation for higher frequencies.
o Overcoming noise/interference limitations at baseband.
2. AM: MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION
1. The Carrier Wave: c(t) = A_c * cos(2πf_c t + φ_c)
o A_c: Carrier Amplitude (Constant in unmodulated state)
o f_c: Carrier Frequency (>> message frequency f_m)
o φ_c: Carrier Phase (Often assumed 0 for simplicity)
 2. The Message Signal: m(t)
o Represents the information (e.g., audio, data).
o Bandwidth = B Hz (Occupies 0 to B Hz).
o Maximum Amplitude = m_p.
3. Standard AM (DSB-FC - Double Sideband Full Carrier):
o Time Domain Expression:
s_AM(t) = A_c * [1 + μ * m_n(t)] * cos(2πf_c t)
▪ s_AM(t): Modulated AM signal.
▪ m_n(t) = m(t) / m_p: Normalized message signal (-1 ≤ m_n(t) ≤ 1).
▪ μ = k * m_p: Modulation Index (Critical Parameter!)

▪ k: Sensitivity constant of the modulator (V⁻¹).

▪ 0 ≤ μ ≤ 1 required to avoid distortion (Overmodulation).
o Envelope: The term A_c * [1 + μ * m_n(t)] is the envelope of the AM signal. The
message m_n(t) must lie within this envelope for distortion-free demodulation.
3. MODULATION INDEX (Μ)
1. Definition: μ = (A_max - A_min) / (A_max + A_min)
o A_max: Maximum amplitude of the modulated wave envelope.
o A_min: Minimum amplitude of the modulated wave envelope.

Figure 1. AM Modulation Index

2. Significance:
o μ = 0: No modulation (Carrier only).
o 0 < μ < 1: Under-modulation (Correct operation).
o μ = 1: 100% modulation (Envelope touches zero at minima).
o μ > 1: Over-modulation (Envelope crosses zero, causing severe distortion -
"Envelope Inversion").
 3. Percentage Modulation: % Modulation = μ * 100%

4. FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS (SPECTRUM)

1. Assume Simple Message: m(t) = A_m * cos(2πf_m t) (Single tone for clarity).
2. AM Signal: s_AM(t) = A_c [1 + μ cos(2πf_m t)] cos(2πf_c t)
3. Trigonometric Expansion:
s_AM(t) = A_c cos(2πf_c t) + (A_c μ / 2) cos(2π(f_c + f_m)t) + (A_c μ / 2) cos(2π(f_c -
f_m)t)
4. Spectrum Components:
o Carrier: Amplitude = Ac, Frequency = fc.
o Upper Sideband (USB): Amplitude = Ac μ / 2, Frequency = fc + fm.
o Lower Sideband (LSB): Amplitude = Ac μ / 2, Frequency = fc - fm.

Figure 2. Spectrum Components in AM signal

5. General Message Spectrum:
o Carrier remains at fc.
o USB: Exact replica of the message spectrum shifted up to frequencies fc to fc +
B.
o LSB: Exact replica of the message spectrum shifted down to frequencies fc -
B to fc.
o Bandwidth (BW): BW_AM = 2 * B (Twice the message bandwidth).
5. POWER DISTRIBUTION
1. Total Transmitted Power (Pt):
Pt = Pc + Pusb + Plsb
 2. Carrier Power (Pc):
𝐴2𝑐
Pc = (Ac^2) / 2 (Average power of Ac cos(ωc t) across 1Ω resistor)
2

3. Sideband Power (Each):

Pusb = Plsb = ( (Ac μ / 2)^2 ) / 2 = (Ac^2 μ^2) / 8
4. Total Sideband Power (P_sb):
Psb = Pusb + Plsb = (A_c^2 μ^2) / 4
5. Total Power (P_t):
P_t = P_c + P_sb = (A_c^2 / 2) + (A_c^2 μ^2 / 4) = (A_c^2 / 2) * [1 + (μ^2 / 2)]

Figure 3. Power distribution in AM signal

6. Power Efficiency (η_AM):
η_AM = (P_sb / P_t) * 100% = (μ^2 / (2 + μ^2)) * 100%
o Maximum Efficiency: At μ=1, η_max = (1 / (2 + 1)) * 100% = 33.3%. Most power
(≥66.7%) is wasted in the carrier!
6. GENERATION METHODS (CONCEPTUAL)
1. Square Law Modulator: Uses the non-linear (square-law) region of a device (e.g.,
diode, transistor). s_AM ≈ k1*c(t) + k2*[c(t) + m(t)]^2.

Figure 4. AM square law Modulator

2. Switching Modulator: Uses a device (e.g., diode, FET) acting as a switch controlled by
the carrier. Effective multiplication.
 Figure 5. Switching AM modulator
3. Balanced Modulator (for DSB-SC) consists of two identical AM modulators. These
two modulators are arranged in a balanced configuration in order to suppress the
carrier signal as shown below.

Figure 5. Balanced AM Modulator

7. DEMODULATION (DETECTION) METHODS

1. Envelope Detector:
o Principle: Extract the envelope of the AM wave.
o Circuit: Simple diode (half-wave rectifier) + RC low-pass filter.
o Pros: Very simple, cheap, used in most AM radios.
o Cons: Requires μ ≤ 1 (no overmodulation); Performance degrades significantly
with noise; Cannot demodulate DSB-SC/SSB.

Figure 6. Envelope detector

 2. Synchronous Detection (Coherent Detection):
o Principle: Multiply the received signal r(t) = s_AM(t) by a local
oscillator signal cos(2πf_c t) synchronized in frequency and phase with the
original carrier.
o Process: r(t) * cos(ω_c t) = s_AM(t) * cos(ω_c t) = ... = (A_c/2)[1 + μ m_n(t)] +
(A_c/2)[1 + μ m_n(t)] cos(2ω_c t)
o Low-Pass Filtering: Removes the high-frequency 2ω_c component,
leaving (A_c/2)[1 + μ m_n(t)]. DC blocking recovers m_n(t).
o Pros: Can demodulate DSB-SC and SSB; More resilient to noise than envelope
detector (in theory).
o Cons: Requires generating a coherent local carrier (f_c and φ_c match
precisely) - complex and expensive; Carrier recovery needed for suppressed
carrier schemes.

Figure 7. Synchronous AM demodulator

8. DRAWBACKS OF STANDARD AM (DSB-FC)

1. Low Power Efficiency: ≥66.7% of power wasted in the carrier (esp. when μ<1).
2. Inefficient Spectrum Usage: Bandwidth is 2B, while the information is duplicated in
both sidebands.
3. Susceptibility to Noise: Noise affects the amplitude directly, corrupting the
information. Envelope detectors are particularly noise-sensitive.
9. IMPROVED AM VARIANTS (CONCEPTUAL)
1. Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC):
o s_DSB-SC(t) = A_c m(t) cos(ω_c t)
 o Spectrum: Carrier absent; Only USB & LSB present.
o Bandwidth: 2B (Same as AM).
o Efficiency: 100% of power is in sidebands (theoretically more efficient).
o Demodulation: Requires synchronous detection (complex).
2. Single Sideband (SSB):

o s_SSB(t) ≈ A_c m(t) cos(ω_c t) ∓ A_c m_hat(t) sin(ω_c t) (USB/LSB)

o Spectrum: Carrier absent; Either USB or LSB present.
o Bandwidth: B (Half of AM/DSB-SC).
o Efficiency: 100% of power in one sideband (most efficient spectrum & power
usage).
o Generation/Demodulation: More complex (requires filters or phasing
methods; demodulation requires synchronous detection).
3. Vestigial Sideband (VSB): A compromise between DSB and SSB, used in analog TV
transmission. One full sideband + a "vestige" of the other.
10. KEY APPLICATIONS
1. AM Radio Broadcasting (535-1705 kHz): Standard DSB-FC. Simplicity of receivers
(envelope detectors) was crucial historically.
2. Aircraft VHF Communications (118-136 MHz): Sometimes uses AM for voice.
3. Video Transmission in Analog TV: Used VSB to save bandwidth.
4. QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation): Digital modulation scheme building on
DSB-SC principles (uses I/Q channels).
11. IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS & TERMINOLOGY
• Overmodulation: Causes distortion and "envelope inversion". Avoid μ > 1.
• Sideband Suppression: Techniques to remove one sideband (SSB) or the carrier (DSB-
SC).
• Coherent vs. Non-Coherent Detection: Envelope detector is non-coherent;
Synchronous detector is coherent.
• Selective Fading: Affects different spectral components differently. Can cause
distortion in AM, especially if carrier fades.
12. STUDY TIPS
1. Master the Math: Derive the time-domain expression and spectrum for a single-tone
AM signal.
2. Visualize Spectra: Sketch spectra for carrier, message, and AM signal.
3. Understand Modulation Index (μ): Calculate it, understand its impact on waveform,
spectrum, and power.
 4. Know the Trade-offs: Why use DSB-FC despite its inefficiency? (Receiver simplicity).
Why use SSB? (Bandwidth/power efficiency).
5. Compare Techniques: Make a table comparing DSB-FC, DSB-SC, SSB, VSB (Carrier?
Sidebands? BW? Efficiency? Demod Complexity? Apps).
6. Practice Power Calculations: Be able to derive and calculate P_c, P_sb, P_t, η_AM.
7. Know Demodulation Principles: How envelope detector and synchronous detector
work, their pros/cons.
12. LAB COMPONENT
1. Generate AM signals using a function generator and oscilloscope. Measure modulation
index.
2. Write a MATLAB function to simulate amplitude modulation.
3. Build a simple diode envelope detector circuit. Observe output vs. input.
4. Use a spectrum analyzer to view AM, DSB-SC, and SSB spectra.