Chapter 2 Defining and Solving Design Problems 29

28 Engineering Design

only six units aÍe ordered, what manufacturing processes

wouid be 2.2.1 Product Anatomy
lf
economical? A product is an item that is purchased and used as a unit (Dixon and Poli,
Fe*-er brokenpotato chips. we have been asked to l edesign our company's 1995). Table 2.1 lists a small portion of the many thousands of products
potato chips per
packaging áquipment to reduce the number of broken manufactured each year. Note that each item listed can be purchased and used
bag. Can u *-o¿itication to the existing equipment fix
the problem? as is. In other words, no further fabrication or assembly is typically required.
manufacturer, has
Lower-cost car seat. our customet, a leading automobile
to lower the total cost of a line of passenger seats
contacted our company
be wiliing to 2,1
that u,e make for them. What compromises will our customer TABLE Example Products

make? Cost for comfort? Cost for safety? army helicopter rnilling machine
to existing automobile paper clip
We readily see that some design problems involv e improvements bag of potato chips paper cup
car seat. Others require the development
products, such as the lightbulb and baseball bat penlight
the robot
of a new product, something that never existed before,, such as bicycle portable CD player
A design problem, iherefore, can be defined as a product/process canoe paddle power lawn mower
welder.
deficiency that needs resolution. or a product/process
opportunity that rreeds carton of miik refrigerator
coffee maker garage door opener
consideration. commercial jet steam boiler
products,
Some design problems invoive relatively simple, one-piec-e fishing reel toaster oven
bat. Others, such
shaped from a single material such -1: u toothpick or
baseball incandescent light bulb toothpick
jet airplane are exampies of very complex inflatable kayak vacuum cleaner
as an automobile and a commercial
with different rnaterials Iaser printer welding robot
;"r;;;u irru, include rhousands of components made leaf rake wrench
or manufacturing Processes'
between the
Some design problems deal with knowing the difference
[Link] exampie, redesigned car seats are bought by
custonter and the
actually use them. Will Some products are simple and others are complex depending on the
the customer and then sold to the consumers who
for a lcwer cost be acceptable to the consum- nuntber, type, and function o.f their conxponents. For example, the paper clip,
satisfying the customer's desire
canoe paddle. and toothpick are single-component products. The penlight,
ers if it means a trade-off in comfort or safet,v?
problem types bicycle, and toaster oven are somewhat more compiex. The refrigerator,
Techrolog)) readiness is also used to char acterize design
R&D may have developed a new light automobile, and commercial jet airplane are very complex.
(utrich and eifinger, 1995). Alrhough
in the laborator], is it manufacturable the factory? Products are composed of components that include parts and assemblies.
bulb filament áatárial _in
Will the new technology be cost-effective? Will it work reliabll'? A part is a single piece reqr:iring no assembly. It is sometimes called a
of produc- piece-part. An assembly is a collection of two or more parts or subassemblies.
Finaliy, design pibUi.*s can also involve different quantities
tion, such as the mass-produced toothpick or the one-of-a-kind machine to A subassembly is an assembly that is incorporated into another assembiy or
subassembiy.
package Potato-chiPs.
In the remainder of this chapter, we describe the basic anatomy
of proci- A standard part is a common interchangeable item, having standard fea-
to establish a nomenclature of component and process tures. tvpically mass-produced, used in various appiications. Examples include:
ucts and process plants
then use the new terms to examine strategies for solving screw. bo1t, nut, washer, v-belt, rivet, k.,v, gasket, shear pins, and lubricants" A
terminoiogy. wi
special-purpose part is a part designed and manufactured for a specific custom
design Problems.
appiication. Examples inciude: engine housing, control link, access cover, sup-
port bracket, and washinq-machine tub.
2.2 PRODUCT AND PROCESS PLANT ANATOMY A standard assembly or subassemblv is one that is commonly sold and
used in various applications. Exampies include pumps, electric motors, brake
products are made of one or more fundamental components arranged in struc-
also designed to calipers, heat exchangers. ball bearings. ciutches, valves, smail gasoline
tured assemblies. process piants. factories, and facilities are engines. and electric switches. The,v are sometimes referred to as modules.
Products and prooess plants have struc-
function with multiple components. Companies that use standard components purchased from one or more
parts and ,yrü*r of the human body that work together. Much
tures. like the suppiiers are called originai equipment manufacturers, or OEMs. A
of the "anatoml"'of
Iike medical students, *á can benefit from the study special-purpose assembly is an assembiy that is designed for a specific applica-
and2.2.2.
products and process plants as presented in sections2.2.t
 -Y'
(

.(
30 Engineering Design Chapter 2 Defining and Solving Design Problems 31

tion: for example, a garden tractor transmission that incorporates a custom

housing, drive shafts, standard bearings and gears. A variety of examples for ExamPIe
each type of cornponent are presented tnTable2-2.
Decompose the penlight shown in Figure 2.1 into its constituent components. Identify
Unfortunateiy, whether the component is a part or an assembly, it is
whether the components are parts or assembiies and in particular whether they are
sometimes referred to as a "part." For example, a bill of materials will iist the
standard or speciai purpose. Then prepare a product component decomposition dia-
components of a product, by part number. part name and quantity. In some
gram to iiiustrate the basic anatomy of the peniight.
cases, these "parts" will be assemblies of other "parts." Usually, the reader or
Iistener must interpret whether the component is a part or an assembly by the Looking at the assembly drawing from left to right, we see that the penlight is an
context or the way that the term is used. Sometimes this can lead to misunder- assembly of a cap, bulb, battery, spring, button switch, and case. The cap is a special
standings that waste time and effort among fellow workers. Therefore, it is im- purpose part made specifically to hold the bulb. The bulb is a subassembly composed of
portant for us to know and appreciate the subtle differences between a part a glass lens, filament, and base. Since the bulb is mass-produced and made in standard
and a "part." sizes it is a standard subassembiy. The spring is a part that is usually purchased as a
standard part. The special-purpo'se button part acts as a switch by pushing the battery
toward the bulb to connect the circuit. The battery is a standard subassembly including
TABLE 2.2 Exampies of Each Type of Product Component an anode, cathode, electroiyte paste, and plastic cover. The rnetal case is a spe-
Standard parts Standard assembiies Special purpose parts cial-purpose part, cylindrical in shape and electrically conducting.

bolt pump equipment housing

nut valve access cover

washer electric motor control link

rivet clutch support bracket
shaft key chain washing machine tub
gasket heat exchanger automobile windshield
v-belt brake caliper hood ornament
gear blank ball bearing motorcycle fender
shear pin
lubricant
power screw
gasoline engines
flashlight case
NN§N'Y spring
sprocket electric switches

<-\avffi,,,,
The process of categorizing the components of a product into parts and tN \- Bu,b

assemblies is called product-component decomposition. Product component V-rí uap

decomposition is a design activity used to identify the existence of individual
parts or assemblies and the corresponding implications of multiple manufac- FIGURE 2.1 Assembil, drawing of penlight showing standard and special-purpose components.
turing processes, inventories, and materials handling, including manual or
automated equipment to mate and fasten individual components. A product A product component decomposition diagram is shown in Figure 2.2. Note that
componeni decomposition diagram is also prepared to illustrate the basic the diagramming scheme uses an oval to represent a product and a rectangie for a sub-
structure of the components. or the product anatom)' of the product. Since the assembll,. Individual parts are shown as plain text. Also note that solid lines, joining the
"form" of a component usualiy denotes its "function," product component components. are used to show the hierarchy of the parts and subassemblies.
decomposition dia-grams assist the deveiopment team in exploring the rela- The decomposition diagram readily illustrates that the product is an assembiy of
tionships between component types and functional performance. Decomposi- two subassemblies and four parts. We note that the function of the bulb is to convert
tion diagrams are especiali,v useful during reverse engineering when a devel- electricity to iight. The function of the battery is to store electricai energy, and the case
opment team physicaliy disassembles an existing competitive product to iearn supports the components as well as conduct electricity from the battery to the bulb.
how each component contributes to the product's overall performance (Otto The decomposition reveals that the peniight assembly depends upon selecting
and Wood, 2001). and purchasing standard components such as the bulb, battery, and spring. It aiso
depends on the sound design and fabrication of the special cap, case, and button, eacir
of which will necessitate decisions regarding appropriate materials and manufacturing
processes.
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32 Engineering Design Chapter 2 Defining and Solving Design Problems 111

rrJ

In general, a product can be decomposed into its components including

Penlight
subassemblies or parts, which may be standard or special-purpose in nature, as
shown in FigureZ.4.

cap
Battery
Case
Spring
Button
Glass iens Anode
Filament Cathode FIGURE 2,2 Product component
Base Electrolyte Standard Speciai-purpose Subassembly A Subassembly B
decomposition diagram of a penlight.
Plastic cover Part Part
Special-purpose part Special-purpose part

Standard part Sub-assemblyAl

Standard part

Special-purpose part
Example
Prepare a product component decomposition diagram of an electric space heater. The
FIGURE 2.4 Product component decomposition diagram of a product having parts and
heater has: (1) a special-purpose metai enclosure subassembly composed of a housing sub-assemblies. both standard and special-purpose.
and an open-faced griil, (2) a standard blower subassembly composed of a fan and
electric motor. (3) an special purpose electric module containing a blower switch,
heater switch, safety tip-over switch, and power cord, (4) u special-purpose heating ele- 2.2.2 Process Plant Anatomy
ment, which uses a nickel cadmium wire wrapped around a ceramic frame and (5) six
machine screws that fasten the subassembiies. Design ensineers sometimes design process plants. Examples include: meat
The space heater inciudes four subassemblies fastened bii machine screws as and vegetable processing, iron ore processirrg, petroleum piants, stamping
shov¿n in Frgure 2,[Link] blower unit is a standard subassembly. The enclosure, control
plants, hydroelectric power plants. and steel plants. A process plant is a combi-
module, and heating element are special-purpose subassembiies. nation of systems used to process energy or materials (both organic and inor-
ganic). A process plant is usualiy a one-of-a-kind design? customized to meet
specific needs. A frozen-vegetable processing plant is shown in Figure 2.5.
The plant includes four systems: washing, blanching, freezing, and pack-
Heater
aging. A system is two or more pieces of equipment used to perform a set of
processes. Other system examples include: waste treatment. auxiliary power
generation, materials handling, HVAC.
Each system is composed of pieces of equipment that perform simpier
Biower Enclosure Electric controls Heating element Machine screws specialized processes. To process means to mechanically or chemically treat
matter so as to change its properties. Examples include: refrigerating, heating,
Fan Housing Blower switch Ceramic frame separating, distiiling, refining, spraying, chiliing, evaporating, melting, homo-
Motor Grill Heater switch I.{iCad wire genizing, freezing. heat-treating, cleaning, inspecting, and sorting.
Equipment refers to machines or apparatus designed to perform a
Tip over switch
process or portion thereof. Exampies include: feed water pumps, boiiers.
Power cord condensers, eiectroplating tanks, and paint sprayers.
Tn oencral, a process plant is an integrated arrangement of systems, and
rrr
FiGURE 2.3 Component ciecomposition diagram of an eiectric heater. 5vrrv.
pieces of equipment, as shown in Figure 2=6=
 -q

(
34 Engineering Design Chapter 2 Defining and Solving Design Problems 35
(

nomenclature and anatomy of products and process plants is used to describe

Frozen
the following types of design.
Vegetable
Plant Variant Design. Variant design seeks to modify the performance of an existing
product by varying some of its design variable values or product parame-
ters such as size, or specific material, or manufacturing processes (Pahl and
Beitz,1996). Examples l,gsuld include: modifying the length of a lever to in-
Washing crease mechanical advantage, or using aluminum for a part rather than
System steel to reduce weight, or using die casting rather than sand casting to re-
duce processing costs. Note, however, that the fundamental working prin-
Spraving Parboiling Chilling Weighing
cipie or concept is usually maintained. For example, the size of the gasoline
Conveying Cooling inspecting Wrapping engine is revised rather than exchanged for an electric motor.
Inspecting Conveying Inspecting Adaptive Design. Adaptive design is when we adapt a known solution to ac-
complish a new task. Examples of adaptive design would inciude: adapting
the ink-jet printer concept to spray a glue to bind powders in lavers as a
FIGURE 2.5 Decomposition diagram of a frozen-vegetabie processing plant.
rapid prototyping method, adapting the celi phone concept to include per-
sonal digital assistant functions, and adapting the positive dispiacement
pump concept in reverse to be used as an internal combustion engine (Pahl
and Beitz,1,996).
Originai Design Originatr design refers to conceiving and embodying an orig-
inal. innovative concept for a given task (Pahl and B eitz, 1996). Ullman
(1991) describes original design as the development of a new component,
assembly, or process that had not existed before.
Equipment 1 System A S,vstem B Selection Design. In selection design we match the desired functional re-
quirements of a component with the actual performance of standard com-
Equipment 2 Equipment 4 ponents listed in vendors' catalogs. For example, if we were designing a
Equipment 3 Sub-system B1
belt-and-pulley drive, we would determine the belt type and size, or the
pulley shaft-bearing types and sizes. Or, if we were designing a new lawn
Equipment 5
tractor, we would have seiection design problems relating to the size and
type of gasoiine engine or the size and type of wheels.
FIGURE 2.6 Decomposition diagrarn of a process plant.
Part, Assembly, Product Design. Design may be characterized with respect to
whether a part, assembly, or product is being designed. For example, the
following types of design generally increase in component compiexity:
standard part design, special-purpose part design, standard assembly de-
System des'ign methods x Product design methods sign, special-purpose assembly design, and product design.
Atthough this book wi[[ usuatty refer to product design, the Concept Design, Con,figuration Design, Parametric Design, Detail Design.
design methods and techniques presented are commonty used Design may also be characterized by the timing and type of information
to design systems and process plants. being processed, as in the design phases such as: formulation. concept de-
sign. configuration design, parametric desisn, or detail [Link]. Configura-
tion design of a special-purpose part, for example, requires determining the
number, type , and approximate arrangement of geometric features, where-
as concept design of a prime mover would examine alternative working
2.3 TYPES OF DESIGN
principies such as eiectric motors, steam engines, or gasoline engines.
We can design in a variety of waYS. The following terms are commoniy used to Redesigrz, Much of our working career will be devoted to the improvernent of
describe different types of design or design activities. Take note how the existing products. To obtain the improvements we usually modify parts, or
 .r

50 Engineering Desig n Chapter 2 Defining and Soiving Design probiems JI

subassenablies, or combinations thereof, by changing their shapes, sizes,

configurations, materials, ancÍ manufacturing processes. Since design is Problem Solution 1 Soiuiion 2 Solution 3
determining "form," whenever we improve an aspect of form we are essen-
tialIy redesigning.
Artistic Design. Artistic design deals with an object's appearance, such as "de-
signer" clothing or furniture. Since engineering design calls for the applica-
tion of science and mathematics to predict the behavior of a candidate
design before it is made, artistic design is not engineering design, however,
Tinkering as "Design " Throughout history we find examples of products that
r\{r,
have not been engineered including: pots, pans, cutlery, chairs, sofas, and
beds. Manufacturers of such "designs" employ new materials or try differ- Homeowner Enqineer 2
ent fabrication methods without regard to the underlying sciences, and if
successful, adopt them in their future products. As in artistic design, Quite often, there are many alternative solutions to a design problem. Each of the th¡ee solutions will
"cut" the grass. Solution 1 requires the user to walk behiná the power lawn mower. Solution 2 permits
tinkering is not engineering design.
the user to ride. Solution 3 requires no gasoline, walking or riding. But then again.,... other waste
products are generated.

2.4 STRATEGIES FOR SOLVING DESIGN PROBLEMS

A number of approaches or strategies can be used to solve a design
Is there an obvious strategy, or pian of action. for soiving a particular design problem. Let's reconsider the toaster design problem to illustrate some piau-
probiem? Does the solution strategy depend upon the problem? sible strategies. Assume that we know tirat a defective part causes 5 percent of
Let's reconsider the examples presenteci in Section [Link] foaster has a the manufactured toasters to fail during normal use. We might consider the
defect that needs to be remeciied. The situation is annoying and potentially following alternative strategies:
ciangerous to the consumer. The toaster has a part or subassembiy that is not
A. Change the part's thickness, length, or material
functioning, causing the product to malfunction. If the company does not act
promptiy, it will likeiy suffer significant financial losses. The current lawn B. Reconfigure the part by rearranging some of its geometric features,
t?xower engine poliutes the air and will no longer be legally acceptabie. This too C. Seiect and purchase a similar part from a reputable supplier
is a probiem that needs immediate solving, similar to the toaster problem. The D. Redesign the subassembly eiiminating the de,fective part
potato-chip-packaging equipm¿rul works. It currently functions. However, it
E. Replace the part with one that uses a different working principle
might be able to work better. It represents an opportunity that would likely
lead to improved customer satisfaction and company profits. Similarly, the F. Fursue combination of above
light bulb, canoe paddle, car seat, and robot welder are opportunities to G. Discontinue the product. or
improve performance, enter a new market, reduce costs, or serve a new H. Do nothing.
customer. While problems need to be fixed, opportunities may be deferred.
We see that alternative A relates to revising a part's size. We can call this
Design probiems, therefore, exhibit varying amounts of urgency or necessity.
strategy choice a variant design or parametric design strategv. Alternative
, In addition to the urgency or necessity of soiving a design problem, we
strategy B relates to changing a part's configuration, which we call configura-
might consider other factors. For example, we may not have enough time
tion design. Choice C can be called a selection design strategy. Choice D can
availabie to redesign a part or subassembly because the product's life cycle is
be called a redesign strategy. And similariy, choicr E .un be called a concept
too short. Or, we may not have enough manpower or other resources avaiiable
design strategy. We see that there are many viable technical approaches to
in the company. We may have to settle for a quick fix. The technicai chal-
soiving the defective toaster part design problem. It may not be póisible, given
lenges may be too risk,v. Or, it may be better to withdraw a poor product from
iimited time and resources, to determine the root cause of the defect. There-
the market than to pooriy redesign a substitute. For exampie, a tire manufac-
fore, discontinuing the product may be the right business strategy.
turer might withdraw a specific brand of off-road tires because delaminating
We can also conclude that a design problem is different than the solution
tread failures appear to result in rollovers of sorne sports utilit"v vehicles. In
strategy. The toaster design problem was that it was defective. A defective
this case, the company decided that the best business strategy was "not soive
part caused product failures. And moreover, we can use anv one of a number
the problem. "
of strategies to "soh¡e" the problem.