Chapter 4

Spatial Information Technology

What is Spatial Information Technology?
The word spatial is derived from space. It refers to the features and the phenomena
distributed over a geographically definable space, thus, having physically measurable
dimensions. We know that most data that are used today have spatial components (location),
such as an address of a municipal facility, or the boundaries of an agricultural holdings, etc.
Hence, the Spatial Information Technology relates to the use of the technological inputs in
collecting, storing, retrieving, displaying, manipulating, managing and analysing the spatial
information. It is an amalgamation of Remote Sensing, GPS, GIS, Digital Cartography and
Database Management Systems.

What is GIS (Geographical Information System)?

The advance computing systems available since mid 1970’s enable the processing of
georeferenced information for the purpose of organising spatial and attribute data and their
integration; locating specific information in individual files and executing the computations,
performing analysis and evolving a decision support system. A system capable of all such
functions is called Geographic Information System (GIS). It is defined as A system for
capturing, storing, checking, integrating, manipulating, analysing and displaying data, which
are spatially referenced to the Earth. This is normally considered to involve a spatially
referenced computer database and appropriate applications software. It is an amalgamation of
Computer Assisted Cartography and Database Management System and draws conceptual
and methodological strength from both spatial and allied sciences such as Computer Science,
Statistics, Cartography, Remote Sensing, Database Technology, Geography, Geology,
Hydrology, Agriculture, Resource Management, Environmental Science, and Public
Administration.

Forms of Geographical Information

The spatial data are characterised by their positional, linear and areal forms of appearances
the data those describe the spatial data are called as Non–spatial or attribute data. The spatial
data are the most important pre-requisite in a spatial or geographical information system.
In a GIS core, it could be built in several ways. These are :
• Acquire data in digital form from a data supplier
• Digitise existing analogue data
• Carry out one’s own surveys of geographic entities.

The choice of a source of geographical data for a GIS application is, however, largely
governed by :
• The application area in itself
• The available budget, and
• The type of data structure, i.e., vector/raster.
For many users, the most common source of spatial data is topographical or thematic maps in
hard copy (paper) or soft copy form (digital). All such maps are characterised by :
• A definite scale which provides relationship between the map and the surface it represents,

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• Use of symbols and colours which define attributes of entities mapped, and
• An agreed coordinate system, which defines the location of entities on the Earth’s surface.

Advantages of GIS over Manual Methods

The maps, irrespective of a graphic medium of communication of geographic information
and possessing geometric fidelity, are inherited with the following limitations :

(i) Map information is processed and presented in a particular way.

(ii) A map shows a single or more than one predetermined themes.
(iii) The alteration of the information depicted on the maps require a new map to be drawn.
Contrarily, a GIS possesses inherent advantages of separate data storage and presentation. It
also provides options for viewing and presenting the data in several ways.
The following advantages of a GIS are worth mentioning :
1. Users can interrogate displayed spatial features and retrieve associated
attribute information for analysis.
2. Maps can be drawn by querying or analysing attribute data.
3. Spatial operations (polygon overlay or buffering) can be applied on
integrated database to generate new sets of information.
4. Different items of attribute data can be associated with one another
through shared location code.
Components of GIS
The important components of a Geographical Information System include the
following: (a) Hardware (b) Software (c) Data (d) People (e) Procedures

Hardware
Hardware comprising the processing, storage, display, and input and output sub-systems.
• Software modules for data entry, editing, maintenance, analysis, transformation,
manipulation, data display and output.
• Database management system to take care of the data organisation. Software An application
software with the following functional modules is important prerequisite of a GIS :
• Software related to data entry, editing and maintenance
• Software related to analysis/transformation/manipulation
• Software related to data display and output.
Data
Spatial data and related tabular data are the backbone of GIS. The existing data may be
acquired from a supplier or a new data may be created/collected in-house by the user. The
digital map forms the basic data input for GIS. Tabular data related to the map objects can
also be attached to the digital data. A GIS will integrate spatial data with other data resources
and can even use a DBMS.

People
GIS users have a wide range from hardware and software engineers to resources and
environmental scientists, policy-makers, and the monitoring and implementing agencies.
These cross-section of people use GIS to evolve a decision support system and solve real
time problems.

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Procedures
Procedures include how the data will be retrieved, input into the system, stored, managed,
transformed, analysed and finally presented in a final output.

Spatial Data Formats

The spatial data are represented in raster and vector data formats :
Raster Data Format
Raster data represent a graphic feature as a pattern of grids of squares, whereas vector data
represent the object as a set of lines drawn between specific points. Consider a line drawn
diagonally on a piece of paper. A raster file would represent this image by sub-dividing the
paper into a matrix of small rectangles, similar to a sheet of graph paper called cells. Each
cell is assigned a position in the data file and given a value based on the attribute at that
position. Its row and column coordinates may identify any individual pixel . This data
representation allows the user to easily reconstruct or visualise the original image. The
relationship between cell size and the number of cells is expressed as the resolution of the
raster.

The Raster file formats are most often used for the following activities :
• For digital representations of aerial photographs, satellite images, scanned paper maps, etc.
• When costs need to be kept down.
• When the map does not require analysis of individual map features.
• When “backdrop” maps are required.

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Vector Data Format
A vector representation of the same diagonal line would record the position of the line by
simply recording the coordinates of its starting and ending points. Each point would be
expressed as two or three numbers (depending on whether the representation was 2D or 3D,
often referred to as X,Y or X,Y,Z coordinates). The first number, X, is the distance between
the point and the left side of the paper; Y, the distance between the point and the bottom of
the paper; Z, the point’s elevation above or below the paper. Joining the measured points
forms the vector.
A vector data model uses points stored by their real (earth) coordinates. Here lines and areas
are built from sequences of points in order. Lines have a direction to the ordering of the
points. Polygons can be built from points or lines. Vectors can store information about
topology. Manual digitising is the best way of vector data input.

The Vector files are most often used for :

• Highly precise applications
• When file sizes are important
• When individual map features require analysis
• When descriptive information must be stored

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The advantages and the disadvantages of the raster and vector data formats

Fig : Representation of Spatial Entities in Raster and Vector Data Format

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Sequence of GIS Activities
The following sequence of the activities are involved in GIS-related work :
1. Spatial data input
2. Entering of the attribute data
3. Data verification and editing
4. Spatial and attribute data linkages
5. Spatial analysis
Spatial Data Input
As already mentioned, the spatial database into a GIS can be created from a variety sources.
These could be summarised into the following two categories :

(a) Acquiring Digital Data sets from a Data Supplies

The present day data supplies make the digital data readily available, which range from
small-scale maps to the large-scale plans. For many local governments and private
organisations, such data form an essential source and keep such groups of users free from
overheads of digitising or collecting their own data. Although, using such existing data sets is
attractive and time saving, serious attention must be paid to data compatibility when data
from different sources/ supplies are combined in one project. The differences in terms of
projection, scale, base level and description in attributes may cause problems. At a practical
level, users must consider the following characteristics of the data to ensure that they are
compatible with the application:
• The scale of the data
• The geo-referencing system used
• The data collection techniques and sampling strategy used
• The quality of data collected
• The data classification and interpolation methods used
• The size and shape of the individual mapping units
• The length of the record.
It must also be noted that where data are used from a number of sources, and particularly
where the area of study crosses administrative boundaries, the difficulties in data integration
are caused by different geographical referencing systems, data classification and sampling.
Hence, the user needs to be aware of these problems, which are particularly prone when
compiling inter-province, and inter-district data sets. Once, the compatibility between the
data acquired from different suppliers is established, the next stage involves the transfer of
data from a medium of transfer to the GIS. The use of DAT tapes, CD ROMS and floppy
disks is becoming increasingly common for the purpose. At this stage, the conversion from
encoding and structuring system of the source to that of GIS to be used is important.

(b) Creating digital data sets by manual input

The manual input of data to a GIS involves four main stages :
• Entering the spatial data.
• Entering the attribute data.
• Spatial and attribute data verification and editing.
• Where necessary, linking the spatial to the attribute data.
The manual data input methods depend on whether the database has a vector topology or grid
cell (raster) structure. The most common ways of inputting spatial data in to a GIS are
through: • Digitisation • Scanning

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With the entity model, geographical data are in the form of points, lines and/ or polygons
(areas)/pixels which are defined using a series of coordinates. These are obtained by referring
to the geographical referencing systems of the map or aerial photograph, or by overlaying
graticule or grid onto it. The use of digitisers and the scanners greatly reduce the time and
labour involved in writing down coordinates.

Scanners
Scanners are the devices for converting analogue data into digital grid-based images. They
are used in spatial data capture to convert a line map to high-resolution raster images which
may be used directly or further processed to get vector topology. There are two basic types of
scanners :
• Scanners that record data on a step-for-step basis, and
• Those that can scan whole document in one operation.
Entering the Attribute Data
Attribute data define the properties of a spatial entity that need to be handled in the GIS, but
which are not spatial. For example, a road may be captured as a set of contiguous pixels or as
a line entity and represented in the spatial part of the GIS by a certain colour, symbol or data
location. Information describing the type of road may be included in the range of
cartographic symbols. The attribute values associated with the road, such as road width, type
of surface, estimated number of traffic and specific traffic regulation may also be stored
separately either as spatial information in the GIS in case of relational databases, or input
along with spatial description with the object-oriented data bases. The attribute data acquired
from sources like published record, official censuses, primary surveys or spread sheets can be
used as input into GIS database either manually or by importing the data using a standard
transfer format.

Data Verification and Editing

The spatial data captured into a GIS require verification for the error identification and
corrections so as to ensure the data accuracy. The errors caused during digitisation may
include data omissions, and under/over shoots. The best way to check for errors in the spatial
data is to produce a computer plot or print of the data, preferably on translucent sheet, at the
same scale as the original. The two maps may then be placed over each other on a light table
and compared visually, working systematically from left to right and top to bottom of the
map. Missing data and locational errors should be clearly marked on the printout. The errors
that may arise during the capturing of spatial and attribute data may be grouped as under :

Spatial data are incomplete or double

The incompleteness in the spatial data arises through omissions in the input of points, lines,
or polygons/area of manually entered data. In scanned data the omissions are usually in the
form of gaps between lines where the raster vector conversion process has failed to join up all
parts of a line.

Spatial data at the wrong scale

The digitising at the wrong scale produces input spatial data at a wrong scale. In scanned
data, the problems usually arise during the geo-referencing process when incorrect values are
used.

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Spatial data are distorted
The spatial data may also be distorted if the base maps used for digitising are not scale
correct. The aerial photographs, in particular, are characterised by incorrect scale because of
the lens distortions, relief and till displacements. In addition, paper maps and field documents
used for scanning or digitising may contain random distortions as a result of having been
exposed to rain, sunshine and frequent folding. Hence, transformation from one coordinate
system to another may be needed if the coordinate system of the database is different from
that used in the input document or image. These errors need corrections through various
editing and updating functions as supported directly by most GIS software. The process is
time-consuming and interactive that can take longer time than the data input itself. The data
editing is usually undertaken by viewing the portion of map containing the errors on the
computer screen and correcting them through the software using the keyboard, screen cursor
controlled by a mouse or a small digitiser tablet. Minor locational errors in a vector database
may be corrected by moving the spatial entity through the screen cursor. In some GIS,
computer commands may be used directly to move, rotate, erase, insert, stretch or truncate
the graphical entities are required. Where excess coordinates define a line these may be
removed using ‘weeding’ algorithms. Attribute values and spatial errors in raster data
must be corrected by changing the value of the faulty cells. Once, the spatial errors have been
corrected, the topology of vector line and polygon networks can be generated.

Data Conversion
While manipulating and analysing data, the same format should be used for all data. When
different layers are to be used simultaneously, they should all be in vector or all in raster
format. Usually, the conversion is from vector to raster, because the biggest part of the
analysis is done in the raster domain. Vector data are transformed to raster data by overlaying
a grid with a user-defined cell size. Sometimes, the data in the raster format are converted
into vector format. This is the case especially if one wants to achieve data reduction because
the data storage needed for raster data are much larger than for vector data.

Geographic Data : Linkages and Matching The linkages of spatial and the attribute data are
important in GIS. It must, therefore, carefully be undertaken. Linking of attribute data with a
non-related spatial data shall lead to chaos in ultimate data analysis. Similarly, matching of
one data layer with another is also significant.

Linkages
A GIS typically links different data sets. Suppose, we want to know the mortality rate due to
malnutrition among children under 10 years of age in any state. If we have one file that
contains the number of children in this age group, and another that contains the mortality rate
from malnutrition, we must first combine or link the two data files. Once this is done, we can
divide one figure by the other to obtain the desired answer.

Exact Matching
Exact matching means when we have information in one computer file about many
geographic features (e.g., towns) and additional information in another file about the same set
of features. The operation to bring them together may easily be achieved using a key common
to both files, i. e. name of the towns. Thus, the record in each file with the same town name is
extracted, and the two are joined and stored in another file.

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Hierarchical Matching
Some types of information, however, are collected in more detail and less frequently than
other types of information. For example, land use data covering a large area are collected
quite frequently. On the other hand, land transformation data are collected in small areas but
at less frequent intervals. If the smaller areas adjust within the larger ones, then the way to
make the data match of the same area is to use hierarchical matching — add the data for the
small areas together until the grouped areas match the bigger ones and then match them
exactly.

Fuzzy Matching
On many occasions, the boundaries of the smaller areas do not match with those of the larger
ones. The problem occurs more often when the environmental data are involved. For
example, crop boundaries that are usually defined by field edges/boundaries rarely match
with the boundaries of the soil types. If we want to determine the most productive soil for a
particular crop, we need to overlay the two sets and compute crop productivity for each soil
type. This is like laying one map over another and noting the combinations of soil and
productivity. A GIS can carry out all these operations. However, the sets of spatial
information are linked only when they relate to the same geographical area.

Spatial Analysis
The strength of the GIS lies in its analytical capabilities. What distinguish the GIS from other
information systems are its spatial analysis functions. The analysis functions use the spatial
and non-spatial attributes in the database to answer questions about the real world.
Geographic analysis facilitates the study of realworld processes by developing and applying
models. Such models provide the underlying trends in geographic data and thus, make new
possibilities available. The objective of geographic analysis is to transform data into useful
information to satisfy the requirements of the decision-makers. For example, GIS may
effectively be used to predict future trends over space and time related to variety of
phenomena. However, before undertaking any GIS based analysis, one needs to identify the
problem and define purpose of the analysis. It requires step – by – step procedures to arrive at
the conclusions. The following spatial analysis
operation may be undertaken using GIS :
(i) Overlay analysis (ii) Buffer analysis (iii) Network analysis (iv) Digital Terrain Model
However, under the constraints of time and space only the overlay and buffer analysis
operations will be dealt herewith.

Overlay Analysis Operations

The hallmark of GIS is overlay operations. An integration of multiple layers of maps using
overlay operations is an important analysis function. In other words, GIS makes it possible to
overlay two or more thematic layers of maps of the same area to obtain a new map layer. The
overlay operations of a GIS are similar to the sieve mapping, i.e., the overlaying of tracing of
maps on a light table to make comparisons and obtain an output map. Map overlay has many
applications. It can be used to study the changes in land use/land cover over two different
periods in time and analyse the land transformations.

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Buffer Operation
Buffer operation is another important spatial analysis function in GIS. A buffer of a certain
specified distance can be created along any point, line or area feature. It is useful in locating
the areas/population benefitted or denied of the facilities and services, such as hospitals,
medical stores, post office, asphalt roads, regional parks, etc. Similarly, it can also be used to
study the impact of point sources of air, noise or water pollution on human health and the size
of the population so affected. This kind of analysis is called proximity analysis. The
buffer operation will generate polygon feature types irrespective of geographic
features and delineates spatial proximity.
For example, numbers of household living within one-kilometre buffer from a chemical
industrial unit are affected by industrial waste discharged from the unit.
Arc View/ArcGIS, Geomedia Quantum GIS free opensoftware and all other GIS softwares
provide modules for buffer analysis along point, line and area features.

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