Dynamic Compaction
Among the available ground improvement techniques, Dynamic compaction (DC) has
gained popularity as an effective improvement technique for geomaterials in view of its
simplicity, low-environmental impact and cost effectiveness.
The low carbon footprint associated with this ground remediation method addresses
the adverse ecological threats imposed on the environment and society due to
unsustainable geotechnical engineering practices encountered in the face of rapid
urbanization.
Applications of
Dynamic Compaction
The method transmits kinetic energy through a compressible soil layer for
improving geotechnical properties of soil at greater depths.
This eventually leads to elimination of conventional expensive deep
foundations at sites exhibiting poor subsoil profiles, thereby economizing the
project.
In addition, the above concept ensures sustainability in engineering practices
by enabling land-reclamation and use of locally available soils of low shear
strength or solid wastes (like coal ash, MSW, incinerated ash etc.) in construction.
Basic Mechanism
Densification by dynamic compaction is performed by dropping a heavy weight of
steel or concrete in a grid pattern from heights of 5 m to 30 m.
It is also referred to as impact densification, heavy tamping or pounding.
It provides an economical way of improving loose soil deposits for mitigation of
liquefaction hazards.
The first reference in this regard involved a site in Germany, and the effectiveness
of DC was officially documented by Louis Menard in the year 1969.
Basic Mechanism
Liquefaction can be initiated locally beneath the drop point making it easier for
the sand grains to densify.
When the excess pore-water pressure from dynamic loading dissipates, additional
densification occurs.
The process is usually repeated in several passes until the required post-treatment
density is achieved.
Till date, DC is used extensively in the field for compacting loose granular
deposits, clayey soils, MSW, rockfills and mine spoil
Basic Mechanism
The ultimate goals of DC are to increase ground bearing capacity and decrease
total and differential settlements within a specified depth of improvement.
The process is cost-effective, as deep foundations can be substituted for shallow
foundations on sites treated by DC. Nowadays, adoption of shallow foundations
after execution of suitable ground improvement technique is referred as optimal
foundations.
During DC, a heavy mass (tamper) is repeatedly lifted and dropped onto the
ground surface to compact the underlying ground. The blow energy of tamper
causes the soil particles to get rearranged into a denser state, thereby improving the
mechanical properties of underlying soil.
Basic Mechanism
m = Mass of tamper
H = Drop height
di = Maximum depth
of improvement Soil surface
m competent to
support crane
H load
Existing ground level
m
Loose soil deposit
Body waves generated
during blow
di
Zone of the oil densified
by dynamic compaction
Governing Principle
The basic mechanism underlying wave propagation in an elastic half space
subjected to a point impact on the surface is presented below.
Geometrical Circular footing
damping law -2
rd -2 rd rd -0.5
Rayleigh wave +
+ Horizontal component
Vertical component
Shear wave
Relative
- + + - amplitude
rd -1
Geometrical damping law rd
+ +
Compression wave
rd -1 rd = Radial distance
Governing Principle
With the impact on the surface, the impact energy is transformed into seismic
waves, which subsequently transmits into the underlying body.
The impact energy is transmitted in the form of body waves consisting of
compression and shear waves, and surface waves or Rayleigh wave.
While the body waves propagate radially outwards from the source along a
hemispherical wavefront as shown, the surface waves propagate horizontally
along the surface.
Governing Principle
The radial and vertical components of body and surface waves get dissipated
with the increases in radial distance (rd) from center of impact.
Geometrical Circular footing
damping law -2
rd -2 rd rd -0.5
Rayleigh wave +
+ Horizontal component
Vertical component
Shear wave
Relative
- + + - amplitude
rd -1
Geometrical damping law rd
+ +
Compression wave
rd -1 rd = Radial distance
Governing Principle
Similar pattern of wave propagation can be expected during DC on the soil
surface, except that the transfer mechanism is somewhat modified owing to
the elasto-plastic response of the soil.
Further the situation complicates in case DC on saturated soils, wherein the
pore water pressure generation and dissipation with successive blows have to be
accounted for additionally (Dynamic Consolidation).
Design parameters
It involves the basic three design parameters, namely the mass of the tamper (m), the
drop height (H) and the maximum depth of improvement (di).
Since a robust formula for design of DC does not exist till date, the formula
suggested by Menard and Broise (1975) is used to approximately relate the energy
per blow and the depth of improvement, as expressed in Equation :
di n mH
Design parameters
di n mH
where di is in meters; m is in tonnes (tonnes is denoted by t); H is in meters; and n is
an empirical coefficient dependent on the soil type, its initial state of compaction and
associated groundwater level as reported by Mayne et al. (1984).
Though Menard and Broise (1975) suggested n value as one (1), other values have
also been suggested.
Based on case histories reported in the field, Rollins and Rogers (1994)
recommended n = 0.4 for collapsible soils and n = 0.4 to 0.5 for dry sandy silts
Leonards et al. (1980) recommended n = 0.5 for granular soils.
Design parameters
Further based on a series of model tests on loess deposits, Fei et al. (2002) gave a formula
for estimating the depth of improvement, expressed in Equation:
2
di [m Hnb {Dp d (1 w)}1 ]0.50
3
where di, m, and H have the same meanings as the symbols in Equation (1.1); nb is
the number of tamper drops; Dp is the diameter of the tamper in meters, ρd is the dry
density of filled soil in kg/m3 and w' is the average water content of the filled soil.
By appropriately selecting the design parameters, the degree and depth of
improvement can reach the design requirements
Grouping of soil types applicable for DC [Redrawn after Lukas (1986)]
100 75 Gravel 4.75 Sand 0.075 Silt 0.002 Clay 0.0001
Zone 1 Zone 3
90
Pervious soils Impervious soils
80 Plasticity index (PI) = 0 Plasticity index (PI) >8
Percent finer by weight (%)
or Non-plastic Consider alternative methods
70 Best for (DC)
60
50
40 Zone 2
30 Semi-pervious soils
Plasticity index (PI) 0<PI<8
20 Must apply DC in multiple Zone 2
phases to allow for pore
10 pressure dissipation
0
10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
Particle size (mm)
Sequence of execution of DC in the field
The blow energy of DC is generally applied in single or multiple phases in a grid
pattern over the entire area.
In the first stage of DC, the blows are spaced at a distance which is dictated by the
depth of the compressible layer, the depth of existing ground water table and the
grain size distribution of soil.
Initial grid spacing is usually at least equal to the thickness of the compressible layer
and 6 to 50 tamper drops are imparted at each point.
This first phase of the treatment with wide spaced blows, is designed to improve the
deeper layers.
In saturated fine-grained soils, a sufficient time lapse is planned between succeeding
passes to allow the increased pore water pressure to dissipate.
Sequence of execution of DC in the field
1st phase points
(compaction of
deep layers)
2nd phase points
(compaction of
Intermediate
layers)
3rd phase points
(compaction of
surface layers)
Sequence of execution of DC in the field
After each pass, the imprints are usually backfilled with the surrounding
materials available at the site.
The initial passes are also called ‘high energy phases’, as the compactive energy
higher than subsequent passes.
The second pass is generally made at the centroid prints of the first pass and consists
of several tamper drops at the same point, which lead to closure of the voids for
achieving minimum void ratio.
Finally, an ‘ironing’ pass with a low energy blow and reduced drop height is
performed at the site to compact the shallow surface layer.
Sequence of execution of DC in the field
Appropriate selection of print spacing and number of tamper drops is essential
for achieving a specified density in the field.
The applied energy intensity is defined as the total applied compaction energy per
unit print area, defined in the form of the following Equation:
where nb is the total number of blows, m is the mass of tamper, H the drop height and
S is the centre-to-centre print spacing
Ground Vibrations
During DC, peak ground velocities (PGV) are generally used to define the damage
criteria for building structures and annoyance levels to persons.
The PGV are measured in the field with velocity recorder seismographs.
According to the German Standard DIN 4150-2 (1999), peak ground velocity (PGV) less
than 8 mm/s is not likely to cause any damage to adjacent structures, as structural
damage requires a much higher PGV of over 50 mm/s
PGV at a distance of 30 m from the point of blow is usually less than 50 mm/s.
In order to reduce the vibrations in congested areas, a cut-off trench of 3 m depth is
usually constructed to intercept and eventually attenuate the surface waves causing the
vibrations.