Roshan Subedi

Weed
Weed is defined as the unwanted, undesirable plant, growing out of their proper place, which
interfere with the utilization of natural resources, prolific, persistent, competitive, harmful and
even poisonous in nature and can grow in adverse climatic conditions. (Jethro Tull: father of weed
Science)
Weed is a plant that originated under a natural environment and in response to imposed and natural

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environments, evolved and continues to do so as an interfering associate with our desired plant
and activities.
Weed is a plant growing out of place and time. They are unwanted not useful, persistent and
prolific, effectively competing with the beneficial and desirable crop plants for space, nutrients,
sunlight and water, interfere with agricultural operations and thereby reducing the yield and quality

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of produce.

Weediness
Weediness is defined as the state or condition of a field, flower bed, lawn and so forth in which

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there is an abundance of weeds.

Characteristics of weeds
• Weeds have rapid seedling growth and ability to reproduce when young e.g. Amaranthus
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retroflexus can flower and reproduce when it is less than eight inches tall.
• Weeds have quick maturation period or take only a short time in the vegetative phase e.g.
Cirsium arvense can produce mature seeds in two weeks after flowering and Salsola seeds
can germinate very quickly between 280 -1100F in late spring.
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• Weeds may have dual mode of reproduction. Most weeds are angiosperms & reproduce by
seeds and vegetative too.
• Weeds have environmental plasticity. Many weeds are capable of tolerating and growing
under a wide range of climatic and edaphic conditions.
• Weeds are often self-compatible but self-pollination is not obligatory.
• If a weed is cross pollinated, this is accomplished by non- specified flower visitors or by
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wind.
• Weeds resist detrimental environmental factors. Most crop seed rot, if they do not
germinate shortly after planting whereas, and weed seeds resist decay for long periods in
soil and remain dormant for longer duration.
• Weed seeds exhibit several kinds of dormancy and escape the rigors of environment and
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germinate when conditions are more favorable for their survival. Many weeds have no
special environment requirements for germination.
• Weeds often produce seeds of same size and shape as the crop seeds, making physical
separation difficult and facilitating spread by men.
• Some annual weeds produce more than one seed flush per year and seed is produced as
long as growing conditions permit.
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• Each weed plant is capable of producing large number of seeds per plant and seed is
produced over a wide range of environmental conditions.
• Many weeds have specially adapted long and short-range seed dispersal mechanisms.
• Roots of some weeds are able to penetrate and emerge from deep in the soil, while most
roots are in the upper foot of the soil Cersium arvense roots routinely penetrate 3-6 feet
and Convolvulus arvensis roots up to 10 feet deep. Roots and rhizomes are capable of

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growing many feet per year.
• Roots and other vegetative parts of perennial weeds are vigorous with large food reserves,
enabling them to withstand environmental stress.
• Perennials have bitterness in the lower stem nodes or in rhizomes and roots and, if severed
vegetative organs will quickly regenerate in to whole plant.

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• Many weeds have adaptation mechanism that repels grazing, such as spines, odd taste or
odor.
• Weeds have great competitive ability for nutrients, light and water and can compete by
special means (e.g. Rosette formation, climbing growth and allelopathy)

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• Weeds are ubiquitous (present everywhere). They exist everywhere, where we practice
agriculture.
• Weeds resist control, including herbicides.
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Harmful effects of Weeds
Weeds have serious impacts on agricultural production. It is estimated that in general weeds cause
5% loss in agricultural production in most of the developed countries, 10% loss in less developed
countries and 25% loss in least developed countries. Yield losses due to weeds vary with the crops.
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Every crop is exposed to severe competition from weeds. Most of these weeds are self-sown and
they provide competition caused by their faster rate of growth in the initial stages of crop growth.
In some crops, the yields are reduced by more than 50% due to weed infestation.

Crop Yield reduction by Crops Yield reduction by

weeds % weeds %
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Rice 41.6 Wheat 16.0

Maize 39.8 Soybean 30.5

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Groundnut 33.8 Sugarcane 34.2

Carrot 47.5 Cotton 72.5

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Onion 68.0 Potato 20.1

Weeds compete with crops for water soil, nutrients, light, and space, and thus reduce the crop
yields. An estimate shows that weeds can deprive the crops 47% N, 42% P, 50% K, 39% Ca and
24% Mg of their nutrient uptake. Weeds also act as alternate hosts that harbor insects, pests,

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diseases and other microorganisms.

Crop Pest Alternate Host

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Sweet potato Sweet potato weevil Convolvulus arvensis

Potato Stalk Borer Chenopodium album

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Some weeds release inhibitors of poisonous substances into the soil that may be harmful to the
crop plants, human beings and livestock.
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Health Problem Weed

Hay fever and Asthma Pollen of Ambrosia and Franseria sp

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Dermatitis Parthenium, Ambrosia

Itching and Inflammation Utrica sp

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Malaria, Encephalitis, Filaria Aquatic weeds like Pista lanceolate, Salvinia

auriculata

• Weeds reduce the quality of marketable agricultural produce. Contamination of weed seeds
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of Datura sp, Argemone sp, Brassica sp etc., is harmful to human health and weed seeds
present in the produce cause odd odor sometimes.
• Weeds not only reduce yield but also interfere with agricultural operations. Weeds make
mechanical sowing a difficult process and render harvesting difficult, leading to increased
expenditure on labor, equipment and chemicals for their removal.
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• In aquatic environment, weeds block the flow of water in canals, water-transport system
and drainage system, rendering navigation difficult. The dense growth of aquatic weeds
pollutes water by deoxygenating it and killing the fishes.
• Weeds are also a nuisance and a fire hazard along railway lines, roads, rights-of-way,
airports, forests and industrial sites.

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Beneficial effects of weeds
In spite of all the difficulties caused by weeds, they can offer some beneficial properties,
particularly when occurring at low densities. These aspects should be utilized in the farming
system, although this may make organic management more complicated than chemical based
systems. Some of the potential benefits of weeds are listed below:

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• Helping to conserve soil moisture and prevent erosion. A ground cover of weeds will
reduce the amount of bare soil exposed helping to conserve nutrients, particularly nitrogen
which could otherwise be leached away, especially on light soils.
• Food and shelter can be provided for natural enemies of pests and even alternative food

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sources for crop pests. The actual presence of weed cover may be a factor in increasing
effectiveness of biological control of pests and reducing pest damage.
• Weeds can also be valuable indicators of growing conditions in a field, for example of
water levels, compaction and pH.
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• Weeds can be an important source of food for wildlife, especially birds. Bird populations
have been declining on farmland over the last few decades and leaving weeds as a resource
has been shown to help revive bird populations.
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Classification of weeds
Out of 2,50,000 plant species, weeds constitute about 250 species, which are prominent in
agricultural and non-agricultural system. Under world conditions about 30000 species are grouped
as weeds which are classified as follows:

I. Based on Ontogeny
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Based on life span (Ontogeny), weeds are classified as Annual weeds, Biennial weeds and
Perennial weeds.
a. Annual weeds
Weeds that live only for a season or a year and complete their life cycle in that season or year are
called as annual weeds.
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These are small herbs with shallow roots and weak stems. Produces seeds in profusion and the
mode of propagation is commonly through seeds. After seeding, the annuals die away and the
seeds germinate and start the next generation in the next season or year following.
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Most common field weeds are annuals. The examples are:

a. Monsoon annuals: Commelina benghalensis, Boerhavia erecta
b. Winter annuals: Chenopodium album

b. Biennials
They complete the vegetative growth in the first season, flower and set seeds in the succeeding

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season and then dies. These are found mainly in non-cropped areas.
e.g. Alternanthera echinata, Daucus carota

c. Perennials
Perennials live for more than two years and may live almost indefinitely. They adapt to

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withstand adverse environmental conditions. They propagate not only through seeds but also by
underground stems, roots, rhizomes, tubers etc. and hence they are further classified into

i. Simple perennials: Plants propagated only by seeds e.g. Sonchus arvensis

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ii. Bulbous perennials: Plants which possess a modified stem with scales and reproduce mainly
from bulbs and seeds e.g. Allium sp.
iii. Corm perennials: Plants that possess a modified shoot and fleshy stem and reproduce
through corm and seeds e.g. Timothy (Phleum pratense)
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iv. Creeping perennials: They reproduce through seeds as well as with one of the followings:
a. Rhizome: Plants having underground stem – Sorghum halepense
b. Stolon: Plants having horizontal creeping stem above the ground – Cynodon dactylon
c. Roots: Plants having enlarged root system with numerous buds – Convolvulus arvensis
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d. Tubers: Plants having modified rhizomes adapted for storage of food – Cyperus rotundus

II. Based on ecological affinities

a. Wetland weeds
They are tender annuals with semi-aquatic habit. They can thrive well under waterlogged and in
partially dry conditions. Propagation is chiefly by seed e.g. Ammania baccifera, Eclipta alba
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b. Garden land weeds (Irrigated lands)

These weeds neither require large quantities of water like wetland weeds nor can they
successfully withstand extreme drought as dryland weeds e.g. Trianthema portulacastrum,
Digera arvensis
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c. Dry lands weeds

These are usually hardy plants with deep root system. They are adapted to withstand drought on
account of mucilaginous nature of the stem and hairiness e.g. Tribulus terrestris, Argemone
mexicana.
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III. Based on place of occurrence

(a) Weeds of crop lands: The majority of weeds infests the cultivated lands and cause hindrance
to the farmers for successful crop production e.g. Phalaris minor in wheat

(b) Weeds of pasture lands: Weeds found in pasture / grazing grounds e.g. Indigofera
enneaphylla

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(c) Weeds of waste lands: Corners of fields, margins of channels etc., where weeds grow in
profusion e.g. Gynandropsis pentaphylla, Calotropis gigantean etc.

(d) Weeds of playgrounds, road-sides: They are usually hardy, prostrate perennials, capable of

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withstanding any amount of trampling.e.g. Alternanthera echinata, Tribulus terestris

IV. Based on Origin

(a) Indigenous weeds: All the native weeds of the country come under this group and most of

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the weeds are indigenous.e.g. Acalypha indica, Abutilon indicum

(b) Introduced or Exotic weeds: These are the weeds introduced from other countries. These
weeds are normally troublesome and control becomes difficult.e.g. Parthenium hysterophorus,
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Phalaris minor, Acanthospermum hispidum

V. Based on cotyledon number

Based on number of cotyledons they can be classified as dicots and monocots.
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(a) Monocots e.g. Panicum flavidum, Echinochloa colona

(b) Dicots e.g. Crotalaria verucosa, Indigofera viscosa

VI. Based on soil pH

Based on pH of the soil the weeds can be classified into three categories.
(a) Acidophile – Acid soil weeds e.g. Rumex acetosella
(b) Basophile – Saline & alkaline soil weeds e.g. Taraxacum sp.
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(c) Neutrophile – Weeds of neutral soils e.g. Acalypha indica

VII. Based on morphology

Based on the morphology of the plant, the weeds are also classified in to three categories. This is
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the most widely used classification by the weed scientists.

(a) Grasses: All the weeds which come under the family Poaceae are called as grasses which are
characteristically having long narrow spiny leaves and cylindrical stem. The examples
are Echinocloa colonum, Cynodon dactylon.
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(b) Sedges: The weeds belonging to the family Cyperaceae come under this group. The leaves
are mostly from the base having modified stem with or without tubers and the stem are generally
triangular or quadrangular. The examples are Cyperus rotundus, Fimbrystylis miliaceae.

(c) Broad leaved weeds: This is the major group of weeds . All dicotyledon weeds are broad
leaved weeds. The examples are Flavaria australacica, Digera arvensis, Tridax procumbens

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VIII. Based on nature of stem
Based on development of bark tissues on their stems and branches, weeds are classified as
woody, semi-woody and herbaceous species.
(a) Woody weeds: Weeds include shrubs and under shrubs and are collectively called brush

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weeds e.g. Lantana camera, Prosopis juliflora
(b) Semi-woody weeds: [Link] sparsiflorus
(c) Herbaceous weeds: Weeds have green, succulent stems and are of most common occurrence
around us e.g. Amaranthus viridis

IX. Based on association

a. Crop bound weeds
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The weeds that occur in certain crop because they are dependent on the host crops partially or
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completely for their nourishment. Ex: Parasitic weeds on the host crops.

b. Season bound weeds

The weeds that occur in the particular season irrespective of the crops. Ex: Sorghum halpense in
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the suumer, Cercium arvense and Phalaris minor in the winter.

c. Crop Associated weeds

Such weeds grow along with the crop due to the similar requirement of microclimate and habitat
and survive along the crop in form of mimicry. Ex. Echinochloa colona in rice.
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X. Based on specificity
Besides the various classes of weeds, a few others deserve special attention due to their
specificity. They are: a). Poisonous weeds, b). Parasitic weeds and c). Aquatic weeds.
a. Poisonous weeds
The poisonous weeds cause ailment to livestock resulting in death and cause great loss. These
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weeds are harvested along with fodder or grass and fed to cattle or while grazing the cattle
consume these poisonous plants e.g. Datura fastuosa, D. stramonium and D. metel are poisonous
to animals and human beings. The berries of Withania somnifera and seeds of Abrus
precatorius are poisonous.
b. Parasitic weeds
The parasite weeds are either total or partial which means, the weeds that depend completely on
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the host plant are termed as total parasites while the weeds that partially depend on host plant for
minerals and capable of preparing its food from the green leaves are called as partial parasites.
Those parasites which attack roots are termed as root parasites and those which attack shoot of
other plants are called as stem parasites. The typical examples are;
• Total root parasite – Orabanche cernua on Tobacco
• Partial root parasite - Striga lutea on sugarcane and sorghum
• Total stem parasite - Cuscuta chinensis on lucerne and onion

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• Partial stem parasite - Cassytha filiformis on orange trees and Loranthus longiflorus on
mango and other trees.
c. Aquatic weeds:
Unwanted plants, which grow in water and complete at least a part of their life cycle in water are

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called as aquatic weeds. They are further grouped into four categories as submersed, emersed,
marginal and floating weeds.
• Submersed weeds: These weeds are mostly vascular plants that produce all or most of
their vegetative growth beneath the water surface, having true roots, stems and leave

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e.g. Utricularia stellaris, Ceratophyllum demersum.
• Immersed weeds: These plants are rooted in the bottom mud, with aerial stems and leaves
at or above the water surface. The leaves are broad in many plants and sometimes like
grasses. These leaves do not rise and fall with water level as in the case of floating weeds
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e.g. Nelumbium speciosum, Jussieua repens.
• Marginal weeds: Most of these plants are immersed weeds that can grow in moist
shoreline areas with a depth of 60 to 90 cm water. These weeds vary in size, shape and
habitat. The important genera that comes under this group are; Typha, Polygonum,
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Cephalanthus, Scirpus, etc.

• Floating weeds: These weeds have leaves that float on the water surface either singly or
in cluster. Some weeds are free floating and some rooted at the mud bottom and the leaves
rise and fall as the water level increases or decreases. e.g. Eichhornia crassipes, Pistia
stratiotes, Salvinia sp., Nymphaea pubescens.
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Propagation of weeds
Propagation is the process of multiplying or increasing the number of plants of the same species
and at the same time perpetuating their desirable characteristics. There are two general methods
of plant propagation: sexual and asexual propagation.
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Reproduction by seed
Reproduction by seed is called sexual reproduction. It requires pollination and fertilization of an
egg which results in seed that is capable of producing a new plant. Seed production varies greatly
among and within weed species in part due to environmental variability between years,
competition from neighboring plants, and genetic variability. For example, while Cersium
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arvense has been observed to produce as few as 680 seeds per plant, Rumex crispus often
produces more than 30,000 seeds per plant.

Vegetative reproduction
In vegetative (asexual) reproduction, a new plant develops from a vegetative organ such as a
stem, root or leaf. Several modifications of these organs are common in perennial weeds, such as

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underground stems (rhizomes), above-ground stems (stolons), bulbs, corms, and tubers.
Although vegetative structures generally do not survive as long in the soil as do seeds, very small
structures can result in a new plant.

Vegetative reproduction can be as prolific as seed production. Yellow nut-sedge (Cyperus

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esculentus) has been reported to produce more than 1,900 new plants and more than 6,800 tubers
in 1 year.
Rhizome: A horizontal, underground stem which can produce adventitious roots and shoots (i.e.,
new plants) at the nodes. A rhizome can be distinguished from a root because rhizomes have nodes,

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internodes, and scale leaves (rudimentary leaves). Roots do not have nodes or leaves. Eg: Sorghum
halepense.

Stolon: An above-ground stem that grows flat on the ground and can produce adventitious roots
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and shoots (i.e., new plants) at the nodes. Eg: Cynodon dactylon.

Tuber: Enlarged terminal portion of rhizomes, possess extensive storage tissues and axillary buds.
Ex: Cyperus rotundus.
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Bulb: Specialized underground storage organ consisting of fleshy leaves with a short stem at the
base. Food storage in the leaves. Wild garlic is example.

Creeping roots: Horizontal roots modified for food storage and vegetative reproduction (can give
rise to shoots). Often deep in the soil. Ex: Solanum carolinense.
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Weed Dispersal
A plant seed is a unique genetic entity, a biological individual. However, a seed is in a diapause
state, an essentially dormant condition, awaiting the ecological conditions that will allow it to grow
into a plant, and produce its own seeds.
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• Seeds must therefore germinate in a safe place, and then establish themselves as a young
seedling, develop into a juvenile plant, and finally become a sexually mature adult that can
pass its genetic material on to the next generation.
• The chances of a seed developing are generally enhanced if there is a mechanism for
dispersing to an appropriate habitat at some distance away from the parent plant.
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• The reason for dispersal is that closely related organisms have similar ecological
requirements. Obviously, competition with the parent plant will be greatly reduced if its
seeds have a mechanism to disperse some distance away. Their ability to spread and remain
viable in the soil for years makes eradication nearly impossible.
• Seeds have no way to move on their own, but they are excellent travelers. Plants have
evolved various mechanisms that disperse their seeds effectively.
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Many species of plants have seeds with anatomical structures that make them very buoyant,
so they can be dispersed over great distances by the winds.
• In the absence of proper means of their dispersal, weeds could not have moved from one
country to another.
• An effective dispersal of weed seeds and fruits requires two essentials a successful

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dispersing agent and an effective adaptation to the new environment.

There are two ways of looking at weed seed dispersal:

• The expanding range and increasing population size of an invading weed species into a

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new area
• The part of the process by which an established and stabilized weed species in an area
maintains itself within that area Dissemination includes two separate processes. They are
dispersal (leaving mother plant) and post-dispersal events (subsequent movement).
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Dispersal of seed occurs in 4 dimensions viz.
1. Length
2. Width: Land/habitat/soil surface area phenomena
3. Height : soil depth, in the air
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4. Time: shatters immediately after ripening (or) need harvesting activity to release seed

Dispersing Agents
Wind
Many seeds are well adapted to wind travel. Cottony coverings and parachute-like structures allow
seeds to float with the wind. Examples of wind-dispersed seeds include common milkweed
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(Asclepias syriaca), common dandelion, Canada thistle, and perennial sowthistle (Sonchus
arvensis). Weed seeds and fruits that disseminate through wind possess special organs to keep
them afloat. Such organs are:
• Pappus – It is a parachute like modification of persistent calyx into hairs e.g. Asteraceae
family weeds - Tridax procumbens
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• Comose - Some weed seeds are covered with hairs, partially or fully e.g. Calotropis sp.
• Feathery, persistent styles - Styles are persistent and feathery e.g. Anemone sp.
• Baloon - Modified papery calyx that encloses the fruits loosely along with entrapped air
e.g. Physalis minima
• Wings - One or more appendages that act as wings e.g. Acer macrophyllum
Factors that influence wind dispersal:
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• seed weight
• seed shape
• structures (wings or pappus)
• height of release
• wind speed and turbulence

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Water
Aquatic weeds disperse largely through water. They may drift either as whole plants, plant
fragments or as seeds with the water currents. Terrestrial weed seeds also disperse through
irrigation and drainage water. Weed seed often moves with surface water runoff into irrigation
water and ponds, where it is carried to other fields. Weeds growing in ditch banks along irrigation

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canals and ponds are the major source of weed seed contamination of irrigation water.

Weed seed often remains viable in water for several years, creating a "floating seed bank" and
allowing weeds to disperse over large areas in moving water. Field bindweed seed, for example,

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remains over 50 per cent viable after being submerged in water for more than 4 years. Some seeds
have special adaptations that aid in water travel. The seed pod of curly dock, for example, is
equipped with pontoons that carry the floating seed.
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Animals
Several weed species produce seeds with barbs, hooks, spines, and rasps that cling to the fur of
animals or to clothing and then can be dispersed to long distances. Farm animals
carry weed seeds and fruits on their skin, hair and hooves. This is aided by special appendages
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such as Hooks (Xanthium strumarium), Stiff hairs (Cenchrus spp), Sharp spines (Tribulus
terrestris) and Scarious bracts (Achyranthus aspera). Even ants carry a huge number
of weed seeds. Donkeys eat Prosophis julifera pods.

Weed seeds are often ingested and passed through the digestive tracts of animals. Animal
droppings provide an ideal nutrient and moisture environment for weed germination. Only a
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small percentage of the seed remains viable after exposure to an animal's digestive enzymes. The
ingested weed seeds are passed in viable form with animal excreta (0.2% in chicks, 9.6% in
calves, 8.7% in horses and 6.4% in sheep), which is dropped wherever the animal moves. This
mechanism of weed dispersal is called endozoochory e.g. Lantana seeds by birds, Loranthus
seeds stick on beaks of birds. Viable weed seeds are present in the dung of farm animals, which
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form part of the FYM. Besides, addition of mature weeds to compost pit as farm waste also act
as source.

Man
Man disperses numerous weed seeds and fruits with raw agricultural produce. Weeds mature at
the same time and height along with crop. Due to their similar size and shape as that of crop seed
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man unknowingly harvest the weeds also, and aids in dispersal of weed seeds. Such weeds are
called “Satellite weeds” e.g. Avena fatua, Phalaris minor.

Machinery
Weed seeds often are dispersed by tillage and harvesting equipments. Seeds move from field to
field on the soil that sticks to tractor tires, and vegetative structures often travel on tillage and

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cultivation equipment and latter dropping them in other fields to start new infestation. Disc-type
cultivation equipment is less likely to drag vegetative plant parts than are shovels or sweeps.

Intercontinental movement of weeds

Introduction of weeds from one continent to another is through crop seed, feed stock, packing

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material and nursery stock e.g. Parthenium hysterophorus

Crop mimicry dispersal

Weed seed adaptations to look like crop seed: plant body or seed same size, shape, and

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morphology as crop e.g. barnyard grass bio-type looking like rice escapes hand weeding and is
dispersed with rice. Nightshade fruit (berries) are same size, shape as dry beans, harvested and
dispersed with beans.
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As admixtures with crop seed, animal feed, hay, and straw
Weeds probably are spread more commonly during the seeding of a new crop or in animal feed
and bedding than by any other method. Seed labels often indicate a tiny percentage of weed seed,
but consider this example. If a legume seed contains 0.001 percent dodder (a parasitic
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annual; Cuscuta campestris) seed by weight, there will be eight dodder seeds per 2 kg of legume
seed. If the legume seed is sown in a field despite an extremely low dodder seed percentage by
weight, the small size of the seed, combined with rapid early-season growth, could result in an
infested legume field within a single season.

CROP-WEED ASSOCIATION
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Weeds possess many growth characteristics and adaptations which enable them to successfully
exploit the numerous ecological niches left unoccupied by crop cultures. Weeds compete with
themselves and with crop plant. Among the more important adaptations relevant to competitive
advantage are properly synchronized germination, rapid establishment and growth of seedlings,
tolerance to shading effects by the crop or by other weeds at the time of establishment, quick
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response to available soil moisture and nutrients, adaptation to the most severe climatic situations
of the habitat, adaptations to the edaphic regime, relative immunity to post seeding soil
disturbance, practices and resistance to herbicides that are used. In the initial stages of invasion
by weeds of exposed ecological niches, only a very limited competition for resources by the crop
and weed may occur, but as establishment of the crop-weed association is completed,
competition for the available resources is more obvious.
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Plant competition is a natural force whereby crop and weed plants tend to attain a maximum
combined growth and yield, with the development of each species being to some extent at the
expense of the other. It occurs when the demands of the plants for moisture, nutrients, light, and
possibly carbon dioxide exceed the available supply. Competition may develop between crop
and weed plants and also between individual plants of each. The ultimate outcome of

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competition usually results in the development of a characteristic crop-weed association. Crop
plants and weeds may grow and mature in the state of mutual suppression that is often found in
crops where no suitable herbicide is available to control the weeds. The weed suppresses the crop
and result in reduction of yield. The crop also suppresses the weeds, a condition often found in
row crop cultures. This is a logical sequence in a crop habitat where both cultural and herbicide

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methods provide effective control.

A principle of plant competition is that the first plants to occupy an area have an advantage over
latecomers. This principle is of foremost consideration in practical weed control, where cropping

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practices are always directed to the establishment of the crop ahead of the weeds.

Competition and allelopathy are the main interactions which are of importance between crop
and weed. Allelopathy is distinguished from competition because it depends on a chemical
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compound being added to the environment while competition involves removal or reduction of
an essential factor or factors from the environment, which would have been otherwise utilized.

CROP WEED COMPETITION

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Weeds appear much more adapted to agro-ecosystems than our crop plants. Without interference
by man, weeds would easily wipe out the crop plants. This is because of their competition for
nutrients, moisture, light and space which are the principle factors of production of crop.
Generally, an increase in on kilogram of weed growth will decrease one kilogram of crop
growth.
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1. Competition for Nutrients

Weeds usually absorb mineral nutrients faster than many crop plants and accumulate them in
their tissues in relatively larger amounts.
Amaranthus sp. accumulates over 3% N on dry weight basis and is termed as “nitrophil”.
• Achyranths aspera, a ‘P’ accumulates over 1.5% P2O5
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• Chenopodium sp & Portulaca sp. are ‘K’ lovers with over 1.3% K2O in dry matter

Crop/Weed N (%) P2O5 (%) K2O (%)

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Achranthus aspera 2.21 1.63 1.32

Amaranthus viridis 3.16 0.06 4.51

Chenopodium album 2.59 0.37 4.34

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Cynodon dactylon 1.72 0.25 1.75

Cyperus rotundus 2.17 0.26 2.73

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Rice 1.13 0.34 1.10

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Wheat 1.33 0.59 1.44

Sugarcane 0.33 0.19 0.67

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• The associated weed is responsive to nitrogen and it utilizes more of the applied ‘N’ than
the crop e.g. The ‘N’ uptake by Echinochloa crusgalli is more than rice.
• Nutrient removal by weeds leads to huge loss of nutrients in each crop season, which is
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often twice that of crop plants. For instance at early stages of maize cultivation, the weeds
found to remove 9 times more of N, 10 times more of P and 7 times more of K.

Competition for moisture

In general, for producing equal amounts of dry matter, weeds transpire more water than do most
of our crop plants. It becomes increasingly critical with increasing soil moisture stress, as found
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in arid and semi-arid areas.

• As a rule, C4 plants utilize water more efficiently resulting in more biomass per unit of
water. Cynodon dactylon had almost twice as high transpiration rate as pearl millet.
• In weedy fields soil moisture may be exhausted by the time the crop reaches the fruiting
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stage, i.e. the peak consumptive use period of the crop, causing significant loss in crop
yields.

Competition for light

It may commence very early in the cop season if a dense weed growth smothers the crop
seedlings. It becomes important element of crop-weed competition when moisture and nutrients
are plentiful. In dry land agriculture in years of normal rainfall the crop-weed competition is
 Roshan Subedi

limited to nitrogen and light. Unlike competition for nutrients and moisture once weeds shade a
crop plant, increased light intensity cannot benefit it.

Competition for space (CO2)

Crop-weed competition for space is the requirement for CO2 and the competition may occur
under extremely crowded plant community condition. A more efficient utilization of CO2 by C4

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type weeds may contribute to their rapid growth over C3 type of crops.

Factors Affecting Weed Crop Competition

1. Density of weeds: Increase in density of weeds and ultimately decrease in yield is a normal
phenomenon. However, it is not linear as few weeds do not affect the yields so much as

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other weed does and hence, it is a sigmoidal relationship.

2. Crop density: Increase in plant population decreases weed growth and reduce competition until
they are self-competitive. Crop density and rectangularity are very important in determining the

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quantum and quality of crop environment available for the growth of weeds. Wide row spacing
with simultaneous high, intra-row crop plant population may induce dense weed growth. In this
respect, square planting of crops in which there are equal row and plant spacing should be ideal in
reducing intra-crop plant competition.
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3. Type of weeds species: The type of weeds that occur in a particular crop influences the
competition. Occurrence of a particular species of weed greatly influences the competition
between the crop & weed. For example E. crusgalli in rice, Setaria viridis in corn
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and Xanthium sp. in soybean affects the crop yield. Flavaria australasica offers more competition
than the grasses

4. Type of crop species and their varieties: Crops and their varieties differ in their competing
ability with weeds e.g., the decreasing order of weed competing ability is as: barley, rice, wheat
and oat. High tolerance of barley to competition from weeds is assigned to its ability to develop
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more roots that are extensive during initial three weeks growth period than the others.
Fast canopy forming and tall crops suffer less from weed competition than the slow growing and
short stature crops. Dwarf and semi-dwarf varieties of crops are usually more susceptible to
competition from weeds than the tall varieties because they grow slowly at initial stage. In addition,
their short stature covers the weeds less effectively. When we compare the crop-weed competition
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between two varieties of groundnut TMV 2 (Bunch) and TMV 3 (Spreading), TMV 2 incurred a
loss of over 30% pod yield under uncontrolled weed - crop competition while TMV 3 lost only
about 15% of its yield. The main reason is due to the spreading nature of TMV 3, which smothered
weeds. Longer duration cultivars of rice have been found more competitive to weeds than the short
duration ones.
 Roshan Subedi

5. Soil factors: Soil type, soil fertility, soil moisture and soil reaction influences the
crop weed competition. Elevated soil fertility usually stimulates weeds more than the crop,
reducing thus crop yields. Fertilizer application of weedy crop could increase crop yields to a much
lower level than the yield increase obtained when a weed free crop is applied with fertilizer.
Weeds are adapted to grow well and compete with crops, in both moisture stress and ample
moisture conditions. Removal of an intense moisture stress may thus benefit crops more than the

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weeds leading to increased yields. If the weeds were already present at the time of irrigation, they
would grow so luxuriantly as to completely over power the crops. If the crop in irrigated after it
has grown 15 cm or more in a weed free environment irrigation could hasten closing in of crop
rows, thus suppressing weeds. Abnormal soil reactions often aggravate weed competition.
Specific weed species suited to different soil reactions exist with us, our crops grow best only in a

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specified range of soil pH.

6. Climate: Adverse weather condition e.g. drought, excessive rains, extremes of temperature, will
favour weeds since most of our crop plants are susceptible to climatic stresses. It is further

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intensified when crop cultivation is stratified over marginal lands. All such stresses weaken crops
inherent capacity to fight weeds.

7. Time of germination: In general, when the time of germination of crop coincides with the
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emergence of first flush of weeds, it leads to intense Crop-Weed interference. Sugarcane takes
about one month to complete its germination phase while weeds require very less time to complete
its germination.
Weed seeds germinate most readily from 1.25 cm of soil and few weeds can germinate even from
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15cm depth. Therefore, planting method that dries the top 3 to 5 cm of soil rapidly enough to
deny weed seeds opportunity to absorb moisture for their germination usually
postpones weed emergence until the first irrigation. By this time the crop plants are well
established to compete with late germinating weeds.

8. Cropping practices: Cropping practices, such as method of planting crops, crop density and
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geometry and crop species and varieties have pronounced effects on Crop-Weed interference.

9. Crop maturity: Maturity of the crop is yet another factor which affects competition between
weeds & crop. As the age of the crop increases, the competition for weeds decreases due to its
good establishment. Timely weeding in the early growth stages of the crop enhances the yield
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significantly.

Critical period of weed competition

Critical period of weed competition is defined as the shortest time span during the crop growth
when weeding results in highest Economic returns.
 Roshan Subedi

The critical period of crop-weed competition is the period from the time of sowing up to, which
the crop is to be maintained in a weed free environment to get the highest economical yield.
The weed competition in crop field is invariably severe in early stages of crop than at later stages.
Generally in a crop of 100 days duration, the first 35 days after sowing should be maintained in
a weed free condition. There is no need to attempt for a weed free condition throughout the life

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period of the crop, as it will entail unnecessary additional expenditure without proportionate
increase in yield.

Critical period of weed growth can be defined as that shortest time span in the ontogeny of crop
growth when weeding results in highest economic returns. The crop yield level obtained by

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weeding during this short span should provide crop yield sufficiently close to that obtained by the
full crop season without weeds.
• Remember: Early occupants on a soil tend to exclude the later ones.
• On the basis of plant ecology, plant require a weed free respite during first one forth to one

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third of its growing period.
• Examples
• Sharma et al., (1997) found that in direct seeded rice, the critical weed competition period
occurred 10-20 days after the crop emergence.
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• In maize, during the first 2-3 weeks of emergence, weeds often completed 15-18% of their
total growth, while maize put up only 2-3% of growth.
• Singh et al., (1980) found that 4-16 weeks period after planting sugarcane critical for
competition weeds.
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• In potato, weeding was found most essential between 2-4 weeks after planting. Delayed
weeding caused considerable shrinkage in tuber yields (Gupta et al., 1979).
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 Roshan Subedi

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Period of weed growth:
It is important to note that when the crop-weed competition is critical; when the weed must be
removed and when they may be allowed to grow without fear of any appreciable crop damage.
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The weeds that germinate and grow at the same time as the crop seeds are most successful
competitors. If weeds are controlled at early period of crop growth, the optimum crop yield could
be harvested which may be quite close to the maximum. The critical weed free period may,
however, vary somewhat with the crop situation. Weeds should be removed at an early stage or
at younger stages otherwise they compete severely. A little delay in weeding results in
infestation of the crop for major parts of their critical growth periods. In situations, where weeds
germinate late (as in dry land wheat/sorghum), late stage weeding is more useful than their early
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weeding. The same is also true for crops like grams and peas that are irrigated for considerable
period after planting. There is less competition when weeds are either removed early or they
germinate slowly because crop plant become sturdy and can tolerate competition. On other hand,
when the weeds germinate along with crops, the crop plants are usually smothered by
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the weed completely e.g. direct sown rice suffers severe competition from the weeds than the
transplanted crop of rice.

Intensity of weeds:
In general, increase in the weed intensity results in reduction of the growth and yield of crops.
There has to be some minimum amount of weed growth in terms of either population or yield in
 Roshan Subedi

the field to exert a minimum biological stress on the crop performance. To maintain
zero weed growth is too costly and cannot be achieved.

Weed species:
Different weeds differ in their ability to compete with the crop at similar density levels. This is
primarily because of difference in their growth habits as well as due to the allelopathic affects

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which they may exert on the germination and growth for the crop e.g. at early stage of growth,
Cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium) is a better competitor of crops than many grass weeds because
it posses broad leaves that shade the ground heavily. In dry areas Canada thistle (Cirsium
arvense) and Field bind weed (Convolvulus arvensis) are more competitive than annual weeds
because of their deep roots and early heavy shoot growth.

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Soil fertility:
Since weeds compete with crops for mineral nutrients, particularly nitrogen. Addition of
fertilizers, manures and other amendments will lessen weed-stress on crop. Methods and time of

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application of fertilizer to the crop fields are important in determining whether the added
fertilizers will suppress or increase weed growth in fields. Band application of fertilizer will also
decide the weed growth. Application of fertilizer early in the crop season when weed growth is
negligible is more beneficial to crop than when weeds are already grown up. Weeds can grossly
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alter the fertilizer response curves of the crops.

Soil moisture status:

Water supplied to weedy crop fields either through irrigation or through rainfall is equally
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accessible to both the crop and weeds. Irrigation is expected to increase the yields of both the
crops and weed, if the fields are initially under stress. Increase in yield of the crop (weedy
and weed free) by rains or irrigation have been found to differ with the crop
and weed species, weed growth etc. Higher water use efficiency of the crops has been noted
in weed free plots than in the weedy plots because of higher level of crop yield in the weed free
plots. Time of rain or first irrigation after planting of the crops is an important factor determining
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the intensity of the crop weed competition e.g. If a crop is irrigated when the plants are 15 cm
tall it can compete with weed that germinated with 1st irrigation or rain, whereas when fields are
irrigated immediately after planting of crops it induces early flush of weed which is highly
detrimental to the crop growth. In water logged soils, many weeds survive much better than the
most crop plants and compete severely with them.
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6. Soil Reaction:
Some of the weed species tolerate abnormal soil reactions much better than others. Some weeds
grow vigorously on abnormal pH soil, where majority of our crop plant will be stunted in
growth. Weed crop competition is more intense on high or low pH soils than on normal pH soils.
 Roshan Subedi

Addition of soil amendments to raise or lower the pH soils, therefore vigorate crop growth,
tilting the balance of weed crop competition in favour of the crops.

Climate influence:
Climate and seasonal variations are greatly responsible for inducing wide differences in weed-
crop competitions. Adverse weather conditions e.g. drought, excessive rain, continuous rain,

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extreme of temperature intensify the weed crop interference, since most of our crop varieties are
highly susceptible to such climate influence whereas the weeds are tolerant to these stresses.
Weeds germinate at different times at different places. Weed emergence in the fields is more
rapid in soils kept continuously wet by rainfall than those that dried three days after planting.
The differences in germination of weed are narrowed as the temperature increases because

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the weed seeds absorb enough moisture in the first three days wet period itself before the soil
dries up.
Cropping practices:
It includes:

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I. Date and method of planting of crop
II. Crop density and rectangularity
III. Crop species and varieties.
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i) Date and method of planting of crop:
Longer the period or interval between the emergence of crops and weeds lesser will be
the weed crop interference. Weed seeds germinate most readily from top 1.25 cm of soil or up to
2.5 cm depth. Only few weeds such as Barnyard grass and cocklebur may germinate even from 10
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cm depth of soil. Therefore, a planting method that dries the top 3-5 cm of soil rapidly is enough
to deny weed seeds the opportunity to absorb moisture for their germination which usually post
pones weed emergence until 1st irrigation is given. By this time, the crop plants are well
established to compete with the late maturing weeds. In other cases, when the planting method
which leaves the top most soil wet, weed seeds absorb enough moisture to germinate which
induces severe weed crop competition.
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ii) Crop density and rectangularity:

In low plant population resulting from low seed rate, faulty germination or loss of crop
seedlings, weed growth is dense and weed crop competition intense. Wide row spacing may also
induce dense weed growth. It can weaken the crop plants and intensify weed crop interference
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further. Square planting should be ideal in reducing the intra-plant competition in crops.
Competition among individuals of same species of plant is comparatively weaker than competition
among individual of different species.

iii) Crop species and varieties:

 Roshan Subedi

Crops and varieties differ in their habitat often to weeds to grow as well as in their ability to with
stand weed competition. Such differences among crop spp. may result from either their inherent
morphological and physiological features or from differences in their cultivation requirements e.g.
Barley is found more tolerant to interference by weeds than wheat and wheat more tolerant than
oats. Linseed is more sensitive to the presence of weed than to other winter grains. High tolerance
of barley to crop weed competition may be due to development of extensive seminal and crown

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roots during its first three weeks after planting. Fast canopy forming and tall crops suffer less
from weed competition than slow growing or short stature crop. Dwarf varieties of crops are more
susceptible to weed crop competition than the tall because initially they grow slowly.

Allelopathy is the detrimental effects of chemicals or exudates produced by one (living) plant

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species on the germination, growth or development of another plant species (or even
microorganisms) sharing the same habitat.

Allelopathy does not form any aspect of crop-weed competition, rather, it causes crop-

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weed interference, it includes competition as well as possible allelopathy.

Allelo chemicals are produced by plants as end products, by-products and metabolites liberalised
from the plants; they belong to phenolic acids, flavanoides, and other aromatic compounds viz.,
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terpenoids, steroids, alkaloids and organic cyanides.
Allelopathic Effects of Weeds on Crops
(1) Maize:
• Leaves & inflorescence of Parthenium sp. affect the germination and seedling growth
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• Tubers of Cyperus esculentus affect the dry matter production

(2) Sorghum:
• Stem of Solanum affects germination and seedling growth
• Leaves and inflorescence of Parthenium affect germination and seedling growth
(3) Wheat:
• Seeds of wild oat affect germination and early seedling growth
• Leaves of Parthenium affects general growth
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• Tubers of C. rotundus affect dry matter production

• Green and dried leaves of Argemone mexicana affect germination & seedling growth
(4) Sunflower:
• Seeds of Datura affect germination & growth
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Allelopathic Effects of crop plants on weeds

(i) Root exudation of maize inhibits the growth of Chenopodium album
(ii) The cold water extracts of wheat straw when applied to weeds reduce germination and
growth of Abutilon sp.
 Roshan Subedi

Allelopathic effects of weeds on weeds

Extract of leaf leachate of decaying leaves of Polygonum contains flavonoides which are toxic to
germination, root and hypocotyls growth of weeds like Amaranthus spinosus
• Inhibitor secreted by decaying rhizomes of Sorghum halepense affect the growth
of Digitaria sanguinalis and Amaranthus sp.

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Factors influencing allelopathy
a. Plant factors
i. Plant density: Higher the crop density the lesser will be the allelo chemicals it encounters
ii. Life cycle: If weed emerges later there will be less problem of allelochemicals

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iii. Plant age: The release of allelochemicals occurs only at critical stage e.g. in case
of Parthenium, allelopathy occurs during its rosette & flowering stage.
iv. Plant habit: The allelopathic interference is higher in perennial weeds.
v. Plant habitat: Cultivated soil has higher values of allelopathy than uncultivated soil.

chemicals potential
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b. Climatic factors: The soil & air temperature as well as soil moisture influence the allelo

c. Soil factors: Physico-chemical and biological properties influence the presence of

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allelochemicals.
d. Stress factors: Abiotic and Biotic stresses may also influence the activity of allelochemcals

Mechanism of action of allelochemicals

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Interfere with cell elongation

• Interfere with photosynthesis
• Interfere with respiration
• Interfere with mineral ion uptake
• Interfere with protein and nucleic acid metabolism
Use of Allelopathy in biological control of weeds:
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1. Use of cover crop for biological control

2. Use of alleopathic chemicals as bio-herbicides

Concept of Weed management

i) Eradication
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ii) Control measures

Weed Control
Weed control includes many techniques used to limit weed infestation and minimize
competition. Weed control technique attempt to achieve a balance between cost of control and
crop yield loss, but weed control is used only after the problem exist.
 Roshan Subedi

Weed management
Weed management is an approach in which weed prevention and weed control have companion
roles. Weed management is the combination of the techniques of prevention, eradication and
control to manage the weed in a cropping system or --environment. or
It is defined as a system of farming, using all available knowledge and tools to produce crops
which are free from economically damaging competitive vegetation

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Weed Control Methods
There are two broad methods of weed control:
1. Preventive methods
2. Curative methods

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1. Preventive Method:
Prevention of introduction and spread of weeds in an entirely new locality is termed as
preventive method. It is essential to know that how weeds disseminate. By taking following

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measures weed spread can be prevented from entering into a new locality.

I) Sowing of weed free clean seed: The seed contaminated with weed seed is a good source of
spread of weeds. It becomes hard to separate the weed-seed from the crop seed. For example,
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cruciferous crops like radish, cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli etc. are well mixed with the seed of
Satyanashi (Argemone mexicana). Such impure seed should be discarded for sowing.

II) Use of clean implements: While operating agricultural implements like cultivator, harrow,
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and seed drill etc. in weed infested field, care must be taken that multiplication part of weed like
rhizome, bulb, tubers, stem is not being carried along. The agricultural implements should be
cleaned properly. Only then these should be used in other fields. This helps in controlling spread
of the weeds.

III) Removal of weeds along canal and irrigation channel: Weed seed get transported through
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water and reach the field. Removal of weeds growing along the sides of canal or irrigation
channel is necessary.

IV) Care in transplanting of seedling/plantlets: Rice and many horticultural plants like all
transplanted vegetables, flowers, and fruits are transplanted in the field with soil attached to their
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root. Infestation of soil with weed may contaminate a new field.

V) Use of well decomposed manure: Weed seeds have good viability. The seed of Convolvulus
arvensis remain viable for as long as 50 years. Cynodon dactylon and Cyperus rotundus seed
viability lasts for two and five years, respectively. For making manure the cow dung is generally
heaped. If the heaping period is short, the seed do not lose its viability and grows in the field
 Roshan Subedi

wherever manure is applied. So only well decomposed manure should be used.

VI) Avoiding passing of cattle from weed infested area: Grazing in weed infested field
followed by allowing passage of cattle in new field favors dissemination of weed seed.
The weed seeds after passing through alimentary canal of the animal come out through dung,
where it gives rise to weed. Some weed seeds also stick to the legs and skin of the animals and

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get transported to some other place where it germinate and grow as a weed.

VII) Crop management practices: All such practices which favor the growth of main crop only
disfavor the growth of weed. The following management practices have smothering effect
on weed and must find place in crop land to prevent weed spread:

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Proper crop rotation prevents establishment of weeds.
Higher plant population per unit area smothers the growth of weed.
Proper placement of fertilizer in the root zone of the seed favors the growth of crop only. The

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weeds deprive of nutrients and their growth is restricted.
Fast and vigorous growing varieties by virtue of their larger leaf canopy cause smothering effect
on the growth of weed. Such crops should receive preference to prevent spread of the weed.
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VIII) Enforcement of weed Laws: Many noxious weeds grow in the fields and pose great
economic and health hazard. Noxious weeds are those perennial weeds which are reproduced by
seeds, stem, roots and other reproductive parts as well and are very difficult to control.
Parthenium hysterophorus, Striga sp., Cyperus rotundus, Cynodon dactylon etc. are noxious
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weeds that grow in many crops.

IX) Quarantine Laws: Quarantine laws impose legal restrictions on the movement of the
agricultural material. If there were adequate quarantine laws, Parthenium and Argemone which
widely grows in crop field may not have entered Nepal. Creating isolation between
widely weed infested area and new area is essential by enforcing and observing quarantine
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properly.

X) Use of pre-emergence herbicides: Herbicides which are used before the emergence of
weeds either before or after planting of crop, is a good preventive measure for
preventing weed infestation. Such herbicides either inhibit seed germination or kill young
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seedlings before they get established.

2. Curative methods
The curative methods of weed control can be done by Physical/Mechanical, Chemical, Cultural
and Biological approach/methods.
 Roshan Subedi

A. Physical/Mechanical methods of weed control

a) Prevention from spread
b) Destruction of top growth
c) Destruction of underground part
d) Destruction of weed seeds in the soil

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a) Preventing from spread:
Use of clean seed: Certified and pure seeds should be used for the sowing purpose. Most of the
seeds are full of impurities which help in the spread of weeds year after year. There should be a
rule to stop the sale of uncertified seeds.
Prevention of seed production in weed contaminated and nearby waste areas: Weeds

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growing in waste lands, along roadside, fences, ditches etc produce seeds which are carried to
adjoining areas of cultivated fields. Such areas should be properly controlled to prevent the
formation of weed seeds.

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b) Destruction of weed growth:
Hand pulling: Efficient method of weed control. Effective in destruction of weeds growing
within the rows. This method should be adopted before seed formation takes place.
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Hand hoeing: Old practice. Eliminates weeds from rows and help in stirring up of soil for soil
aeration. Labor consuming process. Shallow rooted weeds are easily eliminated.

Tillage: Practical, oldest and widely practiced method. If timely practiced, it prevents the seed
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production. It is effective in perennial weeds. It is followed for crops grown in lines. Frequent
tillage destroys the soil structure and thus is less favorable for growth. It is important in seed bed
preparation of field crops but restricted in orchards.

Blind tillage: It means tillage of the soil after seeding the crop, either before the crop plants are
up or while they are in the early stages of growth. Used in most of the crops and cereals. Various
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types of harrows are used in field even though seedlings of crop plants are not above the ground
and repeated until plants are well advanced. This process results in increasing the grain yields.

Ploughing: It helps in burying of annual, biennial and perennial weeds. Ploughing is practiced
before the seeding of crops and top growth of the weeds is checked by it. Deep ploughing in
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summer is effective in exposing the roots to the sun rays and killing them.

Mowing: Means removing the top growth of weeds growing in lawn/roadside and exhausting
them to death. Repeated mowing prevents seed production and also starve the underground parts.
It may require 1-3 years to control tall and perennial weeds by repeated and frequent cutting.
Best time is when the underground root reserves are at the lowest level. Mowing removes apical
 Roshan Subedi

dominance and repeated cutting hastens food depletion and death of the plant. Effective in tall
growing plants. It favors short growing weeds plants by removing competition.

Harrowing: Successful in removal and destruction of small weeds. Adopted, where the surface
of the soil is quite smooth, dry and free from obstruction. Objective is to loosen or cut the root
system enough so that plant dies from desiccation (water losses) before it can re-establish its

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roots.

Disking: Adopted successfully in destroying the weeds by cutting and burring them in the soil
after the crops are harvested.

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Spudding: Spud is a tool with a long chisel like blade designed especially for the removal of
weeds from the lawns without disturbing the soil.

Burning: Noxious weeds like dodder (Cuscutta) are destroyed by burning. It destroys the useful

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vegetation also and affects the soil.

Pasturing and grazing: Continued grazing of the tops of the weeds by animals prevents seed
formation and ultimately exhausts the underground parts. Grazing should be allowed in a
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controlled manner to allow grazing on a limited area so that all weeds are grazed and not the
tasty ones.

c) Destruction of underground parts:

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Hand digging: Removal of underground parts like roots and rhizomes by hand digging, but it is
an expensive method. Applied in small patches where noxious weeds have been found to grow.

Summer fallow: Continuous clearing of the land throughout summer without growing a crop.
Effective if top growth of the weeds is removed at regular intervals to starve the roots. Fields
may be ploughed, or disked. Employed in dry farming areas where crop depends on monsoon. It
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helps in the absorption of precipitation by the soil and in the retention of absorbed moisture.

d) Destruction of weed seeds in the soil:

Some of the weed seeds remain buried in the soil for years without losing their viability and
come up and produce new crops. Steps should be taken to destroy the weeds and to clean the
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fields.

Deep ploughing: weed seeds which are buried below are exposed to the surface if deep
ploughing is practiced during summers. Such weed seeds are induced to germinate and once they
come up, it is easy to control them.
 Roshan Subedi

Harrowing and shallow cultivation: These methods induce many seeds to germinate and can
be destroyed during the preparation of seed beds.

B. Cultural Method
a) Crop rotation: Many weeds thrive well and prove troublesome if the same crop is grown year
after year. Crop rotation or changing the habitat interferes with the normal life cycle of many

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weeds. 3-5 years crop rotation should be practiced. e.g:
I. 1st year - Clean cultivated or tall crops- sugarcane and maize.
II. 2nd year - Grain crops like wheat, barley etc.
III. 3rd year- Grass land (used for pasture)

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b) Crop competition: Simplest method of weed control. Weeds are strong competitors. They
take the lion’s share of the plant nutrients. For every one kg of weed growth, soil produces about
one pound less of crop. Thick crops strongly compete for nutrients by weeds. Most common
smother crops are Sorghum (fodder), Clovers, Lucerne Soya bean and Sun hemps. Fodder crops

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are smothering as their frequent cuttings destroy the top growth of weeds before they set seeds.
Smother crop weakens the underground parts of the weeds and they are easily killed by the
cultivation that fellows.
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c) Mulching: Straw mulching is practised to check weed growth. Paper mulch is used in
pineapple (but is expensive).

d) Clean cultivation: It results in removal of the tops of perennial weeds and it gradually
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weakens and destroys their underground parts. Cultivation must be thorough and at short
intervals so that surface growth of weeds is checked. The removal of surface growth results in
non-manufacturing of food to replenish (feed) the roots.

C. Biological methods
Use of living organism’s viz., insects, disease organisms, herbivorous fish, snails or even
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competitive plants for the control of weeds is called biological control. In biological control
method, it is not possible to eradicate weeds but weed population can be reduced. This method is
not useful to control all types of weeds. Introduced weeds are best targets for biological control.

Qualities of bio-agent:
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The bio-agent must feed or affect only one host and no other useful plants
It must be free of predators or parasites.
It must readily adapt to environment conditions.
The bio-agent must be capable of seeking out itself to the host.
It must be able to kill the weed or at least prevent its reproduction in some direct or indirect way.
 Roshan Subedi

It must possess reproductive capacity sufficient to overtake the increase of its host species,
without too much delay.

Merits:
Least harm to the environment
No residual effect

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Relatively cheaper and comparatively long-lasting effect
Will not affect non-targeted plants and safer in usage

Demerits:
Multiplication is costlier

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Control is very slow
Success of control is very limited
Very few host specific bio-agents are available at present

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Mode of action
Differential growth habits, competitive ability of crops and varieties prevent weed establishment
e.g. Groundnut, cowpea fast growing and so good weed suppresser.
Insects kill the plants by exhausting plant food reserves, defoliation, boring and weakening
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structure of the plant.
Pathogenic organisms damage the host plants through enzymatic degradation of cell constituents,
production of toxins, disturbance of hormone systems, obstruction in the translocation of food
materials and minerals and malfunctioning of physiological processes.
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Outstanding and feasible examples of biological weed control

Larvae of Coctoblastis cactorum, a moth borer, control prickly pear Opuntia sp. The larvae
tunnel through the plants and destroy it. It is controlled by cochinial insects Dactylopius
indicus and D. tomentosus
Lantana camara is controlled by larvae of Crocidosema lantana, a moth bores into the flower,
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stems, eat flowers and fruits.

Cuscuta sp. is controlled by Melanagromyza cuscutae
Cyperus rotundus - Bactra verutana a moth borer
Herbivorous fish Tilapia controls algae. Common carp, a non-herbivorous fish controls sub-
mersed aquatic weeds. It is apparently due to uprooting of plants while in search of food. Snails
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prefer submersed weeds.

D. Chemical method
Using chemicals, generally referred to as herbicides, for the control of weeds is called
chemical weed control. The discovery of 2, 4-D sodium salt in 1944 is a land mark in herbicide
usage.
 Roshan Subedi

Merits
Herbicide can be recommended for adverse soil and climatic conditions, as manual weeding is
highly impossible during monsoon season.

Herbicide can control weeds even before they emerge from the soil so that crops can germinate
and grow in completely weed-free environment at early stages. It is usually not possible with

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physical weed comfort.

Weeds, which resemble like crop in vegetative phase, may escape in manual weeding. However,
these weeds are controlled by herbicides.

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Herbicide is highly suitable for broadcasted and closely spaced crops.

Controls the weeds without any injury to the root system of the associated standing crop
especially in plantation crops like Tea and Coffee.

Reduces the need for pre- planting tillage

Controls many perennial weed species

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Herbicides control the weed in the field itself or in-situ controlling whereas mechanical method
may lead to dispersal of weed species through seed
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It is profitable where labor is scarce and expensive

Suited for minimum tillage concept

Highly economical
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Demerits
Pollutes the environment

Affects the soil microbes if the dose exceeds

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Herbicide causes drift effect to the adjoining field

It requires certain amount of minimum technical knowledge for calibration

Leaves residual effects

 Roshan Subedi

Some herbicide is highly costlier

Suitable herbicides are not available for mixed and inter-cropping system.

ADVANTAGES OF HERBICIDES
A. On weed control

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They kill unwanted plants.
They are easy to use
Herbicides can be used on closely planted crops where other methods cannot be used.
Most of the time one application of the herbicide is enough whereas other methods have to be
continually used.

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They work fast. They can be removed quickly in critical situations.
Herbicides are relatively cheap, and most of the time cheaper than manual weeding.

B. On crop growth

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They can destroy plants bearing diseases.
They help the crops grow by destroying the weed that causes harmful effects which include
competition for water, nutrients and light; interference of weeds with crop growth by the release
of toxins; modification of soil and air temperatures and the harbouring of pests.
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They can be safely used as the manual and mechanical removing of weeds can destroy the crop.

C. Others
They are relatively safe on lands which may erode.
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Non-selective herbicides can effectively clear fields, where houses and roads can then be built.

DISADVANTAGES OF HERBICIDES
A. Effects of Herbicides on environment
Herbicides vary greatly in chemical composition and in the degree of threat they pose to the
environment. Many of the herbicides are highly persistent. It is widely recognized that the main
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reason accounting for residues of certain herbicides like simazine and other triazines in ground
and surface water was the widespread use of these herbicides at high doses on hard surfaces.
a) Soil: Some herbicides are non-biodegradable and are harmful for a long period of time. Heavy
dose of herbicides affects microbial population of the soil. With herbicides targeting amino acid
synthesis in both plants and microbes, there is a possibility that N2 fixation may be inhibited by
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the application of certain herbicides.

b) Water: The improper use of pesticides and herbicides may also cause the storm water
infiltration into groundwater. When these pesticides and herbicides contaminants dissolve in
storm water they infiltrate the groundwater and then the surface waters, such as ponds, streams,
rivers and lakes. These chemicals may also find their way into the soil and deeper groundwater
units polluting them.
 Roshan Subedi

c) Living organisms: Most herbicides are specifically plant poisons, and are not very toxic to
animals. However, by changing the vegetation of treated sites, herbicide use also changes the
habitat of birds, mammals, insects, and other animals through changes in the nature of their
habitat. Herbivores may eat the plants treated with herbicides and then carnivores eat the
herbivores. The toxic herbicide would be passed up the food chain increasing in concentration
each time resulting in cancers and even deaths.

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Anxiety about chemical residues in the environment has increased greatly in the last decade.
These fears and concern about possible litigation have led many land managers to reappraise
their weed control strategies. Change has also been forced on them by the decrease in the number
of approved herbicides as a result of the high cost of registration. In addition, approval has been

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withdrawn from more toxic and persistent herbicides.

B. Effects of Herbicides on Humans

Among the many effects of pesticides and herbicides, perhaps the most alarming is the danger

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they pose to human health. People are directly affected by toxicity of some herbicides, during the
course of their occupation (i.e., when spraying pesticides), or indirectly affected when exposed
through drift or residues on food, and wildlife.
a) Pesticides and herbicides can cause a number of health problems such as heart congestion,
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lung and kidney damage, low blood pressure, muscle damage, weight loss and adrenal glands
damage.
b) Arbitrary and indiscriminate usage of herbicides and pesticides can result in endometriosis, a
common cause of infertility in women.
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c) Herbicides and pesticides have been suspected as a probable cause of certain cancers (i.e.,
cancers of the brain, prostrate, stomach and lip, as well as leukemia, skin melanomas, etc.)
especially among farmers.
d) The infants and children, because of their developing physiology, are susceptible to the
negative effects of herbicides and pesticides in comparison to adults.
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C. Effect of herbicides on crop plant

An important problem with broadcast applications is that they are non-selective. They are toxic
to a wide variety of plant species, and not just the weeds. If herbicides are not used properly,
damage may be caused to crop plants, especially if too large dose is used, or if spraying occurs
during a time when the crop species is sensitive to the herbicide. Unintended but economically
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important damage to crop plants is sometimes a consequence of the inappropriate use of

herbicides.

D. Build-up of resistant biotypes

Apart from their effect on the environment, another major problem with herbicides has been the
build-up of herbicide-resistant biotypes where the same herbicide has been used repeatedly for a
 Roshan Subedi

number of years. This problem was not clearly foreseen at the start of the herbicide revolution
but, since the early 1980s, triazine resistance has developed in most countries where these
herbicides have been used. The usefulness of a number of other herbicides, including paraquat,
dichlofopmethyl and sulfonylurea types has been affected by the development of resistant
biotypes.
Methods of dealing with this problem include prevention of weed seed shedding, crop rotation,

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herbicide rotation, control of weed escapes and tillage practices. Crop rotation is not relevant in
an amenity situation where the ‘crops’ are usually perennial but other control measures may be
appropriate in certain situations. If weeds are prevented from setting seed, resistant biotypes
cannot develop.
This could be achieved if land managers were made more aware of the threat of resistant

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biotypes and made greater efforts in intensively managed areas to prevent weeds from shedding
seeds by the use of a rotation of herbicides supplemented by physical means such as mulching,
hand hoeing and hand weeding.
Modern, intensively managed agricultural and forestry systems have an intrinsic reliance on the

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use of herbicides and other pesticides. Unfortunately, the use of herbicides and other pesticides
carries risks to humans through exposure to these potentially toxic chemicals, and to ecosystems
through direct toxicity caused to non-target species, and through changes in habitat.
Nevertheless, until newer and more pest-specific solutions to weed-management problems are
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developed, there will be a continued reliance on herbicides in agriculture, forestry, and for other
purposes, such as lawn care.

Principles of chemical weed control

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The selectivity exhibited by certain chemicals to cultivated crops in controlling its associated
weeds without affecting the crops forms basis for the chemical weed control. Such selectivity
may be due to differences in the morphology, differential absorption, differential translocation,
differential deactivation etc.

Classification of herbicides
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1) Based on Method of application

i) Soil applied herbicides: Herbicide act through root and other underground parts of weeds.
e.g. Fluchloralin
ii) Foliage applied herbicides: Herbicide primarily active on the plant foliage. e.g. Glyphosate,
Paraquat
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2) Based on Mode of action

i) Selective herbicide: A herbicide is considered as selective when in a mixed growth of plant
species, it kills some species without injuring the others. e.g. Atrazine
ii) Non-selective herbicide: It destroys majority of treated vegetation. e.g. Paraquat
 Roshan Subedi

3) Based on mobility
i) Contact herbicide: A contact herbicide kills those plant parts with which it comes in direct
contact. e.g. Paraquat
ii) Translocated herbicide/Systemic Herbicide: Herbicide which tends to move from treated
part to untreated areas through xylem / phloem tissues depending on the nature of its molecule.
e.g. Glyphosate

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4) Based on Time of application
i) Pre - plant herbicides
Application of herbicides before the crop is planted or sown. Soil application as well as foliar
application is done here. For example, Fluchloralin can be applied to soil and incorporated before

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sowing rainfed groundnut while Glyphosate can be applied on the foliage of perennial weeds like
Cyperus rotundus before planting of any crop.
ii) Pre – emergence herbicides
Application of herbicides before a crop or weed has emerged. In case of annual crops application

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is done after the sowing of the crop but before the emergence of weeds and this is referred as
pre-emergence to the crop while in the case perennial crops it can be said as pre-emergence to
weeds. For example soil application by spraying of Atrazine on 3rd DAP to sugarcane can be
termed as pre-emergence to cane crop while soil application by spraying the same immediately
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after a rain to control a new flush of weeds in inter-cultivated orchard can be specified as pre-
emergence to weed. e.g. Atrazine, Pendimethalin, Butachlor, Thiobencarb, Pretilachlor
iii) Post – emergence herbicides
Herbicide application after the emergence of crop or weed is referred as post-emergence
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application. When the weeds grow before the crop plants have emerged through the soil and are
killed with a herbicide then it is called as early post-emergence. For example spraying 2, 4-D Na
salt to control parasitic weed striga in sugarcane is called as post-emergence while spraying of
paraquat to control emerged weeds after 10-15 days after planting potato can be called as early
post-emergence. e.g. Glyphosate, Paraquat, 2,4-D Na Salt.
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5) Based on molecular structure:

Inorganic compounds
Organic compounds
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