Chapter 1

Complex Numbers

In this chapter, we survey the algebraic and geometric structure of the complex number
system. We assume various corresponding properties of real numbers to be known.

1.1 Definition and Examples of Complex Numbers

Definition 1.1.1. A complex number z is an ordered pair (x, y) of real numbers x and y,
written
z = (x, y).

x is called the real part and y is the imaginary part of z, written

Rez = x Imz = y.

Definition 1.1.2. Two complex numbers are equal if and only if their real parts are the
same and their imaginary parts are the same.

Notation: (0, 1) is the imaginary unit and is denoted by i,

(0, 1) = i.

Addition of two complex numbers z1 = (x1 , y1 ) and z2 = (x2 , y2 ) is defined by

z1 + z2 = (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ).

Multiplication is defined by

z1 z2 = (x1 , y1 )(x2 , y2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 , x1 y2 + x2 y1 ).

1
2 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

These two definitions imply that

(x1 , 0) + (x2 , 0) = (x1 + x2 , 0)

and
(x1 , 0)(x2 , 0) = (x1 x2 , 0)

for real numbers x1 , x2 . Hence, the complex numbers ”extend” the real numbers. We
can thus write
(x, 0) = x. Similarly, (0, y) = iy

since
iy = (0, 1)y = (0, 1)(y, 0) = (0, y).

Then,
(x, y) = (x, 0) + (0, y) = x + iy.

Therefore, we rewrite complex number z = (x, y) as

z = x + iy,

where
i2 = ii = (0, 1)(0, 1) = (−1, 0) = −1

i2 = −1.

Example 1.1.3. 1. z1 = 2 + 3i, z2 = 4, z3 = −2i are complex numbers.

2. z = 4 − 2i =⇒ Re(z) = 4 and Im(z) = −2.

3. z = 3 =⇒ Re(z) = 3 and Im(z) = 0.

4. z = 5i =⇒ Re(z) = 0 and Im(z) = 5.

Definition 1.1.4. Let z = x + iy be any complex number. Then

z = x − iy

is called the conjugate of z.

p
|z| = x2 + y 2

is called the modulus of z.

√
Remark: |z| = zz.
1.2. OPERATIONS ON COMPLEX NUMBERS 3

Figure 1.1: Conjugate of Complex Number

Note: z ∗ = z.

Example 1.1.5. Find the conjugate and modulus of the following complex numbers

1. z = 2 + 3i
√ √
Solution: z = 2 − 3i and |z| = 22 + 32 = 13.

2. z = 1 − i
√
Solution: z = 1 + i and |z| = 2.

3. z = 4
Solution: z = 4 and |z| = 4.

4. z = 5i
Solution: z = −5i and |z| = 5.

1.2 Operations on Complex Numbers

Let z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id be two complex numbers. Then
 4 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

Sum z1 + z2 = (a + ib) + (c + id) = (a + c) + i(b + d).

graph/[Link]

Figure 1.2: The Sum of Two Complex Numbers

Product z1 z2 = (a + ib)(c + id) = (ac − bd) + i(ad + bc).

z1 a + ib ac + bd bc − ad
Qoutient = = 2 2
+i 2 where w 6= 0.
z2 c + id c +d c + d2

Example 1.2.1. Express each of the following in the form of x + iy.

1. (3 + 5i) + (2 − 3i)
Solution:

(3 + 5i) + (2 − 3i) = (3 + 5) + (5i − 3i)

= 8 + 2i.

2. (2 − 7i)(3 + 4i)
Solution:

(2 − 7i)(3 + 4i) = 2(3 + 4i) − 7i(3 + 4i)

= 6 + 8i − 21i + 28

= 34 − 13i.
1.2. OPERATIONS ON COMPLEX NUMBERS 5

4 + 7i
3.
2 + 5i
Solution:
  
4 + 7i 4 + 7i 2 − 5i 4(2 − 5i) + 7i(2 − 5i)
= =
2 + 5i 2 + 5i 2 − 5i 2(2 − 5i) + 5i(2 − 5i)
8 − 20i + 14i + 35
=
4 − 10i + 10i + 25
43 − 6i
=
29
43 6
= − i.
29 29

Theorem 1.2.2. Let z and w be two complex numbers. Then

1. z = z 7. |z +w| ≤ |z|+|w| (triangle inequality)

2. zz = |z|2 ,
8. |z| − |w| ≤ |z − w| ≤ |z| + |w|
3. zw = z w
z 9. ||z| − |w|| ≤ |z − w|
z
4. =
w w
10. z + z = 2Re(z)
5. z + w = z + w,

6. |zw| = |z||w| 11. z − z = 2Im(z)

Proof. Let z = a + bi and w = c + di and also z = a − bi and w = c − di. Then

1.

z = a + bi =⇒ z = a − bi

=⇒ z = a + bi.

Therefore, z = a + bi = z.

2.

zz = (a + bi)(a − bi)

= a2 − abi + abi − b2 i2

= a2 + b2 since i2 = −1

= |z|2 .

Therefore, zz = |z|2 .
6 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

3.

zw = (a + bi)(c + di)

= ac − bd + i(ad + bc)

= (ac − bd) − i(ad + bc)

= ac − iad − bd − ibc

= a(c − id) − ib(c − id)

= (a − bi)(c − di)

= zw.

Thus, zw = z w.

4.

z  
a + bi
=
w c + di
 
a + bi c − di
=
c + di c − di
 
ac + bd bc − ad
= +i 2
c2 + d2 c + d2
ac + bd bc − ad
= 2 2
−i 2
c +d c + d2
ac + bd ad − bc
= 2 2
+i 2 · · · (∗)
c +d c + d2

z a − bi
=
w c − di
a − bi c + di
=
c − di c + di
ac + bd ad − bc
= 2 + i · · · (∗∗)
c + d2 c2 + d 2
z z
From (∗) and (∗∗) we have = .
w w
1.2. OPERATIONS ON COMPLEX NUMBERS 7

5.

z + w = (a + bi) + (c + di)

= (a + c) + i(b + d)

= (a + c) − i(b + d) = a + c − ib − id

= (a − bi) + (c − di)

= z + w.

Hence, z + w = z + w.

6.

|zw| = |(a + bi)(c + di)| = |(ac − bd) + i(ad + bc)|

p
= (ac − bd)2 + (ad + bc)2
√
= a2 c2 − 2abcd + b2 d2 + a2 d2 + 2abcd + b2 c2
√
= a2 c2 + b2 d2 + a2 d2 + b2 c2
p
= a2 (c2 + d2 ) + b2 (c2 + d2 )
p √ √
= (a2 + b2 )(c2 + d2 ) = a2 + b2 c2 + d2

= |z||w|.

Therefore, |zw| = |z||w|.

8 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

7.

|z + w|2 = (z + w)(z + w) = (z + w)(z + w)

= z(z + w) + w(z + w)

= zz + zw + wz + ww

= |z|2 + zw + wz + |w|2

= |z|2 + zw + zw + |w|2

= |z|2 + Re(zw) + |z|2

≤ |z|2 + 2|zw| + |w|2

= |z|2 + 2|z||w| + |w|2

= |z|2 + 2|z||w| + |w|2 since |w| = |w|

= (|z| + |w|)2

=⇒ |z + w| ≤ |z| + |w|.

Therefore, |z + w| ≤ |z| + |w|.

8. From triangle inequality,

|z − w| = |z + (−w)| ≤ |z| + | − w| = |z| + |w| · · · (∗)

and

z = z − w + w =⇒ |z| = |z − w + w|

≤ |z − w| + |w|

=⇒ |z| − |w| ≤ |z − w| · · · (∗∗)

From (∗) and (∗∗) we have

|z| − |w| ≤ |zw | ≤ |z| + |w|.

9.

z = z − w + w =⇒ |z| = |z − w + w|

≤ |z − w| + |w|

=⇒ |z| − |w| ≤ |z − w| · · · (∗)

1.3. GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS 9

w = w − z + z =⇒ |w| = |w − z + z|

≤ |w − z| + |z|

=⇒ |w| − |z| ≤ |w − z| · · · (∗∗)

From (∗) and (∗∗) we have,

||z| − |w|| ≤ |z − w|.

10. z = x + iy =⇒ z = x − iy.
z + z = x + iy + x − iy = 2x = 2Re(z).
Therefore, z + z = 2Re(z).

11. z = x + iy =⇒ z = x − iy.
z + z = x + iy − (x − iy) = 2iy = 2iIm(z).
Therefore,
z − z = 2iIm(z).

1.3 Geometric Representation of Complex Numbers

A complex number z = x + iy can be represented by a point P whose coordinates are
(x, y).

Complex plane is sometimes called the Argand diagram, after the French Mathemati-
cian Jean Robert Argand (1768-1822), born in Geneva and later librarian in Paris. His
paper on the complex plane appread in 1806, nine years later a similar memoir by the
Norwegian Mathematician Caspar Wessel (1745-1818), a surveyor of the Danish Academy
of science.
So far we discussed the algebraic manipulation of complex numbers. Consider the geo-
metric representation of complex numbers, whcih is of great practical importance. We
choose two perpendicular coordinate axes, the horizontal x−axis, called the real axis, and
the vertical y−axis, called the imaginary axis. On both axes we choose the same unit of
length.

Example 1.3.1. Plot the following complex numbers in the complex plane
10 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

Figure 1.3: Complex Plane or Argand Plane

1. −3 + 3.5i 3. 1 − 4i 5. 2 + 6i

2. 3 + 2i 4. 3 + 2i

1.4 Polar Forms of Complex Numbers

The complex plane becomes even more useful and gives further insight into the arthmetic
operations for complex numbers if besides the xy−coordinates we also employ the usual
polar coordinates (r, θ) defined by
1.4. POLAR FORMS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS 11

Figure 1.4: Polar Representation of Complex Numbers

x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ.

We see that then z = x + iy 6= 0 takes the so called polar form

z = r(cos θ + i sin θ).

r is called the modulus of z and is denoted by |z|. Hence,

p
r = |z| = x2 + y 2 .

θ is called the argument of z and is denoted by argz.

y
Since tan θ = , we have θ = tan−1 xy , (z 6= 0).
x
√  π π
Example 1.4.1. z = 3 + 3 3i has the polar form z = 6 cos + i sin .
3 3
Hence, we obtain
π
|z| = 6, argz = + 2πk, k ∈ Z.
3

Note:

• In finding the argument, we must pay attention to the quadrant in which z lies,
since tan θ has period π, so that the argument of z and −z have the same tangent.
Example for θ1 = arg(1 + i) and θ2 = arg(−1 − i), we have tan θ1 = tan θ2 = 1.

• θ is argument of z (arg(z)) will have infinite number of values where as r = |z| is

single valued.

• If −π < θ ≤ π, then θ is called the principal value.

12 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

Figure 1.5: Modulus and argument of a complex number

Example 1.4.2. 1. Write the following complex numbers in polar form

√
a. 1 + i b. 3 − i
Solution:
√ π
a. Let z = 1 + i. Then, |z| = 2 and arg(z) = arctan 1 = .
4
Therefore,
√  π π
1+i= 2 cos + i sin .
4 4
√
 
−1 11π
b. Let w = 3 − i. Then, |w| = 2 and arg(w) = arctan √ = .
3 6
Therefore,
√
 
11π 11π
3 − i = 2 cos + i sin .
6 6

2. Find the modulus and principal value of the complex number

(a) 1 + i 1 + 2i
(c)
1 − (1 − i)2
 2
1 + 2i 2+i
(b) (d)
1 − 3i 3−i

Solution:
√ √ π
a. |1 + i| = 1 + +1 = 2 and arg(1 + i) = arctan 1 = .
4
1.4. POLAR FORMS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS 13
√ π
Then, |1 + i| = 2 and the principal value of 1 + i is .
4

b.

  
1 + 2i 1 + 2i 1 + 3i
=
1 − 3i 1 − 3i 1 + 3i
1 + 3i + 2i(1 + 3i)
=
1 + 3i − 3i(1 + 3i)
1 + 3i + 2i − 6
=
1 + 3i − 3i + 9
−5 + 5i
=
10
1 1
=− + i
2 2

r
1 + 2i 1 1 1 1 1
= − + i = + =√
1 − 3i 2 2 4 4 2

and
   
1 + 2i 1 1 3π
arg = arg − + i = arctan(−1) = .
1 − 3i 2 2 4

1 + 2i 1 1 + 2i 3π
Therefore, the modulus of is √ and the principal value of is .
1 − 3i 2 1 − 3i 4

1 + 2i 1 + 2i 1 + 2i
c. 2
= = = 1 + 0i.
1 − (1 − i) 1 − (−2i) 1 + 2i

1 + 2i
= |1 + 0i| = 1
1 − (1 − i)2

and
 
1 + 2i 0
arg = arg(1 + 0i) = arctan = 0.
1 − (1 − i)2 1

Therefore, The modulus is 1 and the principal value is arctan 0 = 0.

14 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

d.
 2  2
2+i (2 + i)(3 + i)
=
3−i (3 − i)(3 + i)
 2
2(3 + i) + i(3 + i)
=
3(3 + i) − i(3 + i)
 2
6 + 2i + 3i − 1
=
9 + 3i − 3i + 1
 2
5 + 5i
=
10
 2
1 1
= + i
2 2
  
1 1 1 1
= + i + i
2 2 2 2
   
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + i + i + i
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
= + i+ i−
4 4 4 4
1
= i.
2
1 1
i =
2 2
and   1
1 π
arg i = arctan 2 = .
2 0 2
1 π
Therefore, the modulus is and the principal value is .
2 2
Definition 1.4.3. The symbol eiθ , or exp(iθ), is defined by means of Euler’s formula as

eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ

where θ is to be measured in radians. It enables us to write the polar form of a complex

number more compactly in exponential form as

z = reiθ .

Note: If z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) = reiθ and w = s(cos β + i sin β) = seiβ . Then then apply
Euler’s formula to prove the following theorem.
1 1
Theorem 1.4.4. 1. = (cos θ − i sin θ)
z r
2. zw = rs(cos(θ + β) + i sin(θ + β))
1.4. POLAR FORMS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS 15

z r
3. = (cos(θ − β) + i sin(θ − β))
w s
1 1 1 1 1
Proof. 1. = iθ = = (cos θ − i sin θ) = e−iθ .
z re r(cos θ + i sin θ) r r

2. zw = reiθ seiβ = rsei(θ+β) = rs[cos(θ + β) + i sin(θ + β)].

   
z 1 1 r r
3. =z = reiθ e−iβ = ei(θ−β) = = [sin(θ − β) + i sin(θ − β)] .
w w s s s

√
Example 1.4.5. Let z = 1 + i and w = 3 − i be given. Then find

z
1. zw in polar form. 2. in polar form.
w

Solution:
√ π √ π
1. z = 1 + i =⇒ |z| = 2 and arg(z) = arctan(1) = + 2πk, k ∈ Z =⇒ 1 + i = 2e 4 .
4
And
√
w= 3 − i =⇒ |w| = 2

and
√
 
1 π −π
arg(w) = arctan − √ = − + 2πk, k ∈ Z =⇒ 3 − i = 2e 6 .
3 6
π
√ i π i −π √ i π4 −i √ π
So, zw = 2e 4 2e 6 = 2 2e 6 = 2 2ei 12 .

Therefore,
√ π √  π π
zw = 2 2ei 12 = 2 2 cos + i sin .
12 12

2. In question (1) above we have,

√ iπ √ √
√
 
i π4 i −π z 2e 4 2  π π 2 5π
z= 2e nd w = 2e 6 =⇒ = −i π = exp i + i = exp i .
w 2e 6 2 4 6 2 12

Therefore, √   √  
z 2 5π 2 5π 5π
= exp i = cos + i sin .
w 2 12 2 12 12

Note: Abraham De Moiver (1667 − 1754), French Mathematician who pioneered the
use of complex numbers in trigonometry.
16 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

Theorem 1.4.6. If
z = r(cos θ + i sin θ)

and n is a positive integer, then

z n = (r(cos θ + i sin θ))n = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ).

Proof. Let
z = r(cos θ + i sin θ)

and n ∈ N. Then by Euler’s formula

z = reiθ

.

n
z n = reiθ = rn einθ = rn (cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)).

Therefore,
z n = rn (cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)).

Note: In this theorem if r = 1

(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ, n ∈ Z

this is known as de Moivre’s formula.

Example 1.4.7. Simplify

 10
1 1
1. + i
2 2
 4
2π 2π
2. cos + i sin
3 3
Solution:
r  
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 π
1. + i = + = and arg + i = arctan(1) = .
2 2 4 4 2 2 2 4

1 1 1 π π
=⇒ + i= cos + i sin
2 2 2 4 4
1.5. ROOT EXTRACTION 17
 10   10  
1 1 1 π π 1 5π 5π
=⇒ + i = cos + i sin = cos + i sin
2 2 2 4 4 32 2 2
 
1 5π 5π 1  π π 1
=⇒ cos + i sin = cos + i sin = i.
32 2 2 32 2 2 32

Therefore, the simplified form of

 10
1 1 1
+ i = i.
2 2 32

2. By De-Movier’s formula,
 4
2π 2π 8π 8π
cos + i sin = cos + i sin
3 3 3 3
2π 2π
= cos + i sin
3 √ 3
1 3
=− + i.
2 2
 4 √
2π 2π 1 3
Therefore, the simplified form of cos + i sin is − + i.
3 3 2 2

1.5 Root Extraction

1
A number w is called an nth root of a complex number z if wn = z, and we write w = z n .
From De-Moiver’s formula we can show that if n is positive integer,

1 1 1 1
z n = (r(cos θ + i sin θ) n = r n (cos θ + i sin θ) n
 
1 θ + 2kπ θ + 2kπ
wk = r n cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...., n − 1.
n n
1
From which it follows that there are n different values for z n , i.e. n different nth roots of
z, provided z 6= 0.

Example 1.5.1. Find

1. the roots of z 6 = −8

2. all values of

1 1
(a) (−8i) 2 (c) (2i) 2
√ 1
p √
(b) ( 3 + i) 2 (d) 1 − 3i
18 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

Solution:

1. Let
z = r(cos θ + i sin θ).

Then by de Moivre’s formula,

z 6 = r6 (cos 6θ + i sin 6θ) · · · (∗)

And also the polar form of −8

 
0
| − 8| = 8 and arg(−8) = arctan = arctan 0 = π.
−8

−8 = 8(cos π + i sin π) · · · (∗∗)

From (∗) and (∗∗), we have

rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ) = 8(cos π + i sin θ).

√
r6 = 8 =⇒ r =
6
8

and

(2k + 1)π
cos 6θ = cos π =⇒ 6θ − π = 2πk =⇒ θ = , k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
6

Therefore,
√
    
6 (2k + 1)π (2k + 1)π
zk = 8 cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
6 6
√ !
√  π π  √ 3 1
k = 0, z0 = 6 8 cos + i sin = 68 +i .
6 6 2 2
√
6
 π π √
k = 1, z1 = 8 cos + i sin = 6 8 (0 + i) .
 2 2  √ !
√ 5π 5π √ − 3 1
k = 2, z2 = 6 8 cos + i sin = 68 +i .
6 6 2 2
√ !
√ √
 
7π 7π − 3 1
k = 3, z3 = 6 8 cos + i sin = 68 −i .
6 6 2 2
√ √
 
6 9π 9π
k = 4, z4 = 8 cos + i sin = 6 8 (0 − i) .
6 6
√ !
√ √
 
11π 11π 3 1
k = 5, z5 = 6 8 cos + i sin = 68 −i .
6 6 2 2
1.5. ROOT EXTRACTION 19
1
2. (a) Let z = (−8i) 2 ,then z 2 = −8i.

 
3π 3π
−8i = 8 cos + i sin · · · (∗).
2 2
By de Moivre’s formula,

z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) =⇒ z 2 = r2 (cos 2θ + i sin 2θ) · · · (∗∗).

From (∗) and (∗∗) we have,

 
3π 3π
8 cos + i sin = r2 (cos 2θ + i sin 2θ).
2 2
Then,
√
r2 = 8 =⇒ r = 2 2

and

3π 3π (4k + 3)π
cos 2θ = cos =⇒ 2θ − = 2πk =⇒ θ = , k = 0, 1.
2 2 4
Therefore,
√
 
(4k + 3)π (4k + 3)π
zk = 2 2 cos + i sin , k = 0, 1.
4 4
√ √ !
√ √
 
3π 3π 2 2
k = 0, z0 = 2 2 cos + i sin =2 2 − +i = −2 + 2i.
4 4 2 2
√ √ !
√ √
 
7π 7π 2 2
k = 1, z1 = 2 2 cos + i sin =2 2 −i = 2 − 2i.
4 4 2 2
√
1 √ √
(b) Let z = 3 + i 2 , then z 2 = 3 + i. The polar form of 3 + i,
√  π π
3 + i = 2 cos + i sin · · · (∗).
6 6
And by de Moivre’s formula

z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) =⇒ z 2 = r2 (cos 2θ + i sin 2θ) · · · (∗∗).

π
 π
From (∗) and (∗∗) we have, 2 cos + i sin = r2 (cos 2θ + i sin 2θ). Then,
6 6
√
r2 = 2 =⇒ r = 2

and

π π (12k + 1)π
cos 2θ = cos =⇒ 2θ − = 2πk =⇒ θ = , k = 0, 1.
6 6 12
20 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

So, the values are

√
 
(12k + 1)π (12k + 1)π
zk = 2 cos + i sin , k = 0, 1.
12 12
√  π π
Now, k = 0, z0 = 2 cos + i sin
12 12
and the trigonometric identities
   
2 θ 1 + cos θ 2 θ 1 − cos θ
cos = , sin =
2 2 2 2

enable us to write
π √ ! √
2 1 π 1 3 2+ 3
cos = 1 + cos = 1+ = ,
12 2 6 2 2 4

√ ! √
π 1 π 1 3 2− 3
sin2 = 1 − cos = 1− = .
12 2 6 2 2 4
Consequently,
√ √
s s 
√ √ √
q q 
2 + 3 2 − 3 1
= √
z0 = 2  +i 2+ 3+i 2− 3 .
4 4 2

√
 
13π 13π
k = 1, z1 = 2 cos + i sin and the trigonometric identities
12 6
   
2 θ 1 + cos θ 2 θ 1 − cos θ
cos = , sin =
2 2 2 2

enable us to write
    √ ! √
2 13π 1 13π 1 3 2− 3
cos = 1 + cos = 1− = ,
12 2 6 2 2 4

    √ ! √
13π 1 13π 1 3 2+ 3
sin2 = 1 − cos = 1+ = .
12 2 6 2 2 4
Consequently,
√ √
s s 
√ √ √
q q 
2 − 3 2 + 3 1
= √
z1 = 2  +i 2− 3+i 2+ 3 .
4 4 2

1
(c) Let z = (2i) 2 , then z 2 = 2i.
 π π
2i = 2 cos + i sin · · · (∗).
2 2
1.5. ROOT EXTRACTION 21

and by de Moivre’s formula

z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) =⇒ z 2 = r2 (cos 2θ + i sin 2θ) · · · (∗∗).

From (∗) and (∗∗) we have

√
r2 = 2 =⇒ r = 2

and also
π π (4k + 1)π
cos 2θ = cos =⇒ 2θ − = 2πk =⇒ θ = , k = 0, 1.
2 2 4
Therefore,
√
 
(4k + 1)π (4k + 1)π
zk = 2 cos + i sin , k = 0, 1.
4 4
√ √ !
√  π π  √ 2 2
Now, k = 0, z0 = 2 cos + i sin = 2 +i = 1 + i.
4 4 2 2
√ √ !
√ √
 
5π 5π 2 2
k = 1, zk = 2 cos + i sin = 2 − − i sin = −1 − i.
4 4 2 2
p √ √
(d) Let z = 1 − i 3, then z 2 = 1 − i 3.

√
 
5π 5π
1 − i 3 = 2 cos + i sin · · · (∗).
3 3
and by de Moivre’s formula

z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) =⇒ z 2 = r2 (cos 2θ + i sin 2θ) · · · (∗∗).

From (∗) and (∗∗) we have

√
r2 = 2 =⇒ r = 2.

And also
5π 5π (6k + 5)π
cos 2θ = cos =⇒ 2θ − = 2πk =⇒ θ = , k = 0, 1.
3 3 6
Therefore,
√
 
(6k + 5)π (6k + 5)π
zk = 2 cos + i sin , k = 0, 1.
6 6
Now,
√ !
√ √
 
5π 5π 3 1
k = 0, z0 = 2 cos + i sin = 2 − +i .
6 6 2 2
√ !
√ √
 
11π 11π 3 1
k = 1, z1 = 2 cos + i sin = 2 −i .
6 6 2 2
22 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

3. Find the square roots of −15 − 8i.

Solution: Method I:
15 8
−15 − 8i = 17(cos θ + i sin θ) =⇒ cos θ + i sin θ = − − i
17 17
where,
15 8
cos θ = − and sin θ = − .
17 17
Then, the square roots of −15 − 8i are

√
 
θ θ
17 cos + i sin · · · (∗)
2 2

and
√
    
θ θ
17 cos + π + i sin + π · · · (∗∗)
2 2
Now,
r s
15
θ 1 + cos θ 1 − 17 1
cos =± =± = ±√
2 2 2 17
and s
r
θ 1 − cos θ 1 + 15
17 4
sin = ± =± = ±√ .
2 2 2 17
θ
Since θ is an angle in the third quadrant, is an angle in the second quadrant.
2
Hence,
θ 1
cos = −√
2 17
and
θ 4
sin =√
2 17
and so from (∗) and (∗∗) the required square roots are −1 + 4i and 1 − 4i.
As a check note that (−1 + 4i)2 = (1 − 4i)2 = −15 − 8i.
Method II: Let p + iq where p and q are real represent the required square roots of
−15 − 8i. Then

(p + iq)2 = p2 − q 2 + i2pq =⇒ p2 − q 2 + i2pq = −15 − 8i

=⇒ p2 − q 2 = −15 and 2pq = −8

=⇒ p2 − q 2 = −15 and pq = −4
4
=⇒ p2 − q 2 = −15 and q = − .
p
1.5. ROOT EXTRACTION 23

4
Substitute q = − into p2 − q 2 = −15 , to obtain
p
 2
2 4 16
p − − =⇒ p2 − 2 = −15
p p
=⇒ p4 − 16 = −15p2

=⇒ p4 + 15p2 − 16 = 0

=⇒ (p2 + 16)(p2 − 1) = 0

=⇒ p2 + 16 = 0 or p2 − 1 = 0

=⇒ p = ±1 since p is real.

If p = 1, then q = −4. And also if p = −1, then q = 4.

Thus, the roots are −1 + 4i and 1 − 4i.
24 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

1.6 Review Exercises

1. Separate each of the following com- 3. If z1 =√2 + i, z2 = 3 − 2i and z3 =
1 3
plex numbers into real and imaginary − + i, evaluate each of the fol-
2 2
parts. lowing.

(a) f (z) = 2z 2 − 3iz (a) |3z1 − 4z2 |

1
(b) f (z) = z + (b) z13 − 3z12 + 4z1 − 8
z
1−z (c) (z3 )4
(c) f (z) =
1+z 2
√ 2z2 + z1 − 5 − i
(d) f (z) = z (d)
2z1 − z2 + 3 − i
(e) f (z) = tan z 4. Find real numbers x and y such that

2. Perform each of the indicated opera- 3x + 2iy − ix + 5y = 7 + 5i.

tions. 5. Express each of the following complex

(a) (3 + 2i) + (−7 − i) numbers in polar form.

√
(b) (8 − 6i) − (2i − 7) (a) 2 + 3 3i

(c) (5 + 3i) + [(−1 + 2i) + (7 − 5i)] (b) −5 + 5i

√ √
(d) (2 − 3i)(4 + 2i) (c) − 6 − 2i

(e) (2 − i)[(−3 + 2i)(5 − 4i)] (d) −3i

(f) (−1 + 2i)[(7 − 5i) + (−3 + 4i)]

6. Find z if
3 − 2i
(g) √
−1 + i (a) z 4 = −2 3 − 2i
5 + 5i 20
(h) +
3 − 4i 4 + 3i (b) z 5 = 1
3i30 − i19
(i) (c) z 6 = −1
2i − 1