Chemistry Measurement Techniques Guide
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ScribdTranslationsChemistry Measurement Techniques Guide
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ScribdTranslationsMEASUREMENT IN CHEMISTRY
To measure a magnitude is to compare it with another of the same kind, which is taken as
unit.
Measurement of a magnitude is the operation of measuring, with its result being a
measurement. The values obtained in the measurement must be read and recorded according to
what the equipment allows; the number of digits, units, and uncertainties.
Directly → consists of directly comparing the magnitude to
measure with another of the same species and whose value can be
choose for unit.
ruler (length)
burette, pipette, graduated cylinder and the flask
volumetric (volume)
stopwatch (time)
MEASUREMENTS scale (mass)
Indirectly → it is used for quantities that derive
mathematically of other quantities that can be measured
directly.
to measure the area of a square
measure the volume of a regular solid
measure concentrations of a solution
measure density
Measurement is the result of a measurement and is expressed through a number and
a suitable unit.
UNITS AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
In the record of a reading, the units should always be included – preferably, of the
S.I.
Magnitudes and base units
Greatness Unit S.I.
Length L metro m
Mass m kilogram kg
Weather t second s
Current intensity I ampere A
electric
Temperature T kelvin K
Amount of matter n mole mol
The symbols for quantities are written in italics; the symbols of the units
they have no plural.
It is generally preferable to use scientific notation to maintain the number of
significant figures.
Scientific notation consists of expressing numerical values,
regardless of its magnitude, in the form a x 10b, with 1≤a < 10 and b is
an integer, affected by a positive or negative sign, according to the
magnitude of the number in question.
When |b| = 1, 2 or a multiple of 3, it can be replaced by 10. bby the appropriate prefix
for S.I. units
For example:
l = 0.0254 = 2.54 x 10-2m (or 2.54 cm)
4532g (or 4.53 hg)
Remember:
If we have to move the comma to the left, the exponent is equal to the number.
of displaced decimal places and positive.
If we have to move the comma to the right, the exponent is equal to the number.
of displaced houses and negative.
Operations with scientific notation
A-Addition and subtraction
Each plot must have the same value, then we add or subtract.
respectively, the part.
Ex.2.32 x 104+ 1.9 x 103= 2.34 x 104+ 0.19 x 104= 2.51 x 104
B-Multiplication and division
To multiply numbers expressed in scientific notation x 10b,
we multiply the parts and add the exponents.
Ex. 4.0 x 104x 1.5 x 106=(4 x 1.5) x 10(4+6)6.0 x 1010
To divide numbers expressed in scientific notation x 10bwe divide the
we subtract the exponents.
Ex. 8.5 x 104/ 2.0 x 109=(8.5 / 2.0) x 10(4-9) 4.25 x 10-5
EQUIPMENT SELECTION AND SIGNIFICANT DIGITS
The equipment must be selected according to the order of magnitude and
with the acceptable uncertainty in the measurement that is intended to be made.
It would not be appropriate to use the same equipment to measure the mass of a
the book is like a diamond; the same equipment will not be used to measure them
perimeters of this sheet, of a school building and of one of the Atlantic islands.
In a reading, all the digits read directly plus the are significant.
first estimated or doubtful, inclusive. For example, a ruler with
divisions of 1 mm allow measuring 25.4 mm or 0.0254 m. Of these three
significant figures, the last is doubtful - it was obtained by estimation.
Rules for counting significant figures
Any digit different from zero is significant.
Example: 246 cm → 3 significant figures
2. Zeros between digits that are not zero are significant.
Example: 405cm → 3 significant figures
3. Zeros to the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant.
Example: 0.00038 g → 2 significant figures
0.00520 g → 3 significant figures
4. For numbers greater than 1, the zeros to the right of the decimal point count as
significant figures.
Example: 3.0 mg → 2 significant figures
5. For numbers without decimal places, zeros may or may not be significant.
Example: 4 x 1021 significant digit
4.0 x 102→2 significant digits
4.00 x 102→3 significant figures
Operations with significant figures
Addition and subtraction - the number of decimal places in the sum or difference is the
even from the data that has the smallest number of decimal places.
Multiplication and division - in the final product or in the quotient, the number of digits
Significant figures are determined by the factor that has the smallest number of digits.
significant.
Rules for rounding
The decimal place is chosen up to which the approximation is desired,
1st Disregard the following digit if it is less than 5.
example–1.963→1.96
2º Add one unit to this decimal place if the next digit is
greater than 5.
example–1.966→1.97
If the digit following the chosen place is 5, there are two situations.
example–1.965→1.96 or 1.975→1.98
RECORDING AND TREATMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Errors in experimental results
In any measurement there is always an uncertainty due to the errors made
which must be made explicit.
The systematic errors that occur in measuring a quantity arise
always in the same direction and can be corrected if the causes are known;
these errors decrease the accuracy of the result (deviation in relation to
true value of the magnitude.
The causes of systematic errors can be: deficiency in the method, deficiency
inherent to the observer (vision defect, for example), deficiency of the
conditions under which the measurement is made (effect of pressure and temperature)
presence of impurities in the sample, etc.
The accidental or fortuitous errors that occur in the measurement of a
greatness, sometimes they are in excess, sometimes they are deficient, and they can be compensated
(attenuated but not eliminated) considering the most likely value as
average of several values. These errors influence the accuracy of the result.
The causes of accidental errors can be: poor positioning of the observer in relation to
reading scale, incorrect estimate in the evaluation of fractions of the scale; currents
from the AR, trembling of the work table, fluctuations in network voltage
electric, etc.
Precision is the closeness between the values obtained through a series of
measures of a single value.
The accuracy translates the closeness that exists between the measured values and the value.
real.
Knowing the exact value of the measurement of the magnitude, one can always determine the
its difference in relation to the measured value, calculating, for that, the value of
absolute error (or absolute value of the error) of a measurement:
ei= |vi- vexact |
ei-absolute error; vI-measurement value; vexactexact value of the magnitude
Relative error of a measurement is the quotient of the absolute error and the value.
exact (andi/ vexact).
Mean relative error is the average of the relative errors.
Uncertainty of a reading
The absolute uncertainty of a reading is the maximum error that can be made when
make a reading.
If there is an indication of uncertainty in the device (or in the table provided by
manufacturer, sometimes with other designations: precision, tolerance, error...) is
this is the value to consider.
5 ml volumetric pipette with a tolerance of 0.02 ml: V =(5.00 0.02 ml.
If the device is analog (with a scale), the uncertainty of a measurement is
half of its nature (being the nature of the analog device the least
scale division.
Ammeter with a scale of 200 mA with 50 divisions: I = (123 2)ma.
If the device is digital (with discontinuous values on a display), the
The uncertainty of a measurement is the smallest value read on this device (jump between
two values on the scale.
scale with a sensitivity of 0.1 mg: m = (5.6789 0.0001 g.
Uncertainty in a series of measurements
The most probable value, x, of a magnitude for which a series of measurements is performed
the arithmetic mean of the n measurements made, x1, x2, x3, …, x:
Absolute deviation (or absolute value of the deviation) of a measurement is the modulus of
difference between the measurement value (xi) and the average value of the measurements:
di= |xi-xmedium|.
Relative deviation of a measurement is the quotient between the absolute deviation and the
average value (di/ xmedium).
Mean relative deviation is the average of the relative deviations.
In a series of readings of the same quantity, the absolute uncertainty is the
maximum deviation module in these readings if it is greater than the uncertainty
absolute of each reading.
MEASUREMENT OF MASSES
Measuring the mass of a sample is an operation commonly referred to as
weighing
The necessary instrument for this operation is the scale, which is usually
graduated in grams (g); there are several types of scales, with ranges and
diverse sensitivities.
The range is the maximum value that can be measured using the device.
case, the scale); the sensitivity is the value of the smallest division of its scale.
After selecting the scale, weigh the sample with the following precautions:
do not place the sample directly on the scale plate, but rather inside
from a clean and dry container (watch glass, goblet, for example);
avoid vibrations from the table or countertop where the scale is located;
avoid spills of liquids or solid reagents on the balance plate.
MEASUREMENT OF VOLUMES
To measure volumes of liquids, various instruments are used, depending on the precision.
to observe and the volume of the sample.
For precise measurements, pipettes, burettes, or volumetric flasks are used.
For less precise measurements, graduated cylinders are used.
Any of these instruments have some information inscribed on them.
important ones, such as:
maximum volume (capacity);
graduation of your scale, usually in mL;
tolerance (maximum limit of error);
reference mark, in the case of pipettes or volumetric flasks;
calibration temperature (temperature at which the measurement should be taken
and what is, normally, 200C).
Whatever instrument is used to measure a given volume must
to read in a way that avoids parallax errors – errors associated with
incorrect position of the observer.
The free surface of a liquid contained in a measuring instrument shows
it is always slightly curved at the edge. It takes on a concave shape–
concave meniscus – in the case of liquids, such as water, that wet the walls of
glass; takes on a convex shape - convex meniscus - in the case of liquids, such as the
mercury, which does not wet the walls of the vessels that contain it.
The reading should be done in such a way that the direction of the gaze coincides with the line.
tangent ...
Whenever the direction of the gaze does not coincide with the tangent line to the menisci.
parallax errors are made.