Cultural DynamismI

I. INTRODUCTION

The present approach aims to encompass the entire cultural process with the objective of
central showing that cultures are always changing. Even those cultures that
they seem stabilized and inert, yet they are in constant motion. It is our
intention trace as lines general do behavior the cultures.
Every culture can be considered between two extremes: a state of stability
(functioning) e another of change (transformation).
This gives rise to a repetitive movement that corresponds to simple functioning, by a
side; and on the other, the functioning transforms, which means that the very unit
changed of form (a structure social a organization social changed).
It is interesting to know how institutional stability is maintained. We will address,
so, the institutionalized culture with the corresponding process, that is,
enculturation or enculturation. The synchronic aspect of culture.
In the second part, we will address the diachronic aspect of culture, the change.
cultural, with its own processes: discovery, invention, diffusion,
acculturation.

II. CONCEPT OF CULTURE

Culture is a complex set that includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, laws,
costumes and various other skills and habits acquired by man as a member of a
society. Includes, then, all o behavior human.
According to DE NAPOLI (1985/86: p. 1), 'culture is a set of meanings of
shared and accepted values by a community. In summary, it is the way of living of
um group human yours values e behaviors.

III. DINAMISMO CULTURAL

A culture can to be dynamic or stable.

It is stable (identity, tradition) while emphasizing tradition and institutionalization.
of behavior patterns. Tradition does not mean repetition (BOKA DI MPASI, 1986).
According to MARTINEZ (2003: p. 42), culture is dynamic, as it is constantly
transformation obeying to the following aspects:
Law of life: culture changes like a living being (example of the body...); changes can
be they small or large, unnoticed or violent;
Unnoticed changes: the very nature of learning determines it for you.
slow transformation;
Conscious change: culture also experiences the desired and conscious change;
Violent changes: cultural encounters: the change occurs due to new
needs provoked for the new situations.
SYNCHRONIC ASPECTS: ENCULTURATION

According to MARTINEZ (2003: p. 51), quoting BERNARDI, enculturation is a process

educational through which members of a culture become aware and co-participants
yes own culture.
HERSKOVITS, cited by MARTINEZ (2003: p. 51), says that enculturation is the aspects of
learning experiences that distinguish man from other creatures and through the
which, initially, and later in life are able to be competent in their culture.

Aspects General

Stability Sociocultural
Scholars (anthropologists and sociologists) when trying to explain the reason for stability
socio-cultural of the populations, they concluded that they are guided by a normative
guaranteed through sanctions social.

Stability Regulations
Social norms (customs and laws) are imposed on the members of society; it is
it is necessary to take into account the distinction between person and standard (equal to norm), between society
e cultural.

Control Function Social

Consequently, culture would have as one of its most important functions that of
control social having in view o functioning yes society.

Character Institutional
It is possible to ascertain the standardized, repetitive, and relatively fixed institutional character of
culture; we can see it in the uses, customs, and laws of a certain group; the
the same happens in language and symbolism: we have consecrated, stable ways of
to act and to say things; the communication itself among the members of a certain
people demand a quite fixed standard of symbols in order to allow for understanding of the
messages.

Patterns of Behavior
The maintenance of behavioral standards meets the need to provide for the
survival of the populations.
It would be exaggerated to claim that culture is the only responsible factor for the maintenance of
stability of society or social coexistence (example of animals that live in
friendly coexistence without them being custodians of culture). We must acknowledge that it would be
to overestimate the normative and continuous character of culture, attributing exclusivity to it
in this task.

Process of Enculturation
The child, at birth, exhibits 100% biological behavior. But soon it begins to receive the
impact of culture. The following steps are taken:
Assimilation: Assimilation of standardized behaviors that the child observes to their
return.
Conformation: the tendency is to absorb as much culture as possible and conform behavior to
she.
Learning of symbols: to learn every symbolic device that will allow the child
communicate with other members of society and become fit for the process
intellectual sensitive e volitional.
Acquisition of habits: acquires habits and customs, will discipline your biological movements.
and will undergo a progressive change that will transform its behavior by 100%
biological up to the maximum point of 100% cultural. But no being reaches such an extreme,
Although all newborns follow the indicated path, from birth to maturity.
Interpenetration: in man, all inorganic, biological, and psychological phenomena
are marked by the seal of culture; there is an interpenetration of all of them; and it is not
It is easy to distinguish how far some go and others; all these phenomena become human,
that is, special and typical phenomena of human life shaped by culture.
Duration: the process of enculturation extends throughout an individual's life and presents
variations e intensities various
In childhood: the first experiences and contacts with are of great importance.
culture (the fundamental conditioning, such as eating, sleeping, speaking, etc.); with this
process a child go modeling a yours personality;
In adulthood: the process becomes more conscious, which can lead to acceptance or
a repulsion.
Enculturation is very important for making the individual an adjusted member of
society. Rigorously, the process we studied, especially in the early years,
takes on an imposing character, that is, culture overrides the individual: the newcomers
newborns never choose the cultural values they will assimilate; this would be in every way
impossible, because we cannot conceive of choice in a little child who does not know
follow o device symbolic yes your culture.

Determinism: one can talk about a cultural determinism when discussing behavior.
human; a child receives a whole set of experiences already established by the
culture; you have to learn the language used in your group and behave as they do
the other members of society. The moment she starts to make use of her
mental faculties, it does so according to the internalized cultural values, that is, based on the
your learned culture. Even as an adult, the personal and conscious conduct of the individual does not
let it be of to be a expression yes culture.
Once a man is enculturated, he will never stop being an agent of his own culture.
But even so, in adulthood this process becomes flexible, making a set
mixed of formation and reformulation. Culture penetrates all aspects of an individual's life, as it
it models not only your biological behavior but also the psychological one.

Three stages:
Childhood: accepted all as messages yes culture
-Maturity: accepted based on the previous (or reformulated) culture;
-Old age: rarely is a reformulation accepted, as the internalized cultures are like
crystallized becoming waterproof à new suggestions.
ASPECTS DIACRONIC

In anthropological tradition, there are few studies on cultural change, as until recently
at the time, anthropological studies were limited to the study of isolated cultures. Lately
Studies on change from an anthropological perspective are increasing.
Today there are no isolated peoples. Modern technology is present everywhere.
world. And with its powerful means of social communication, it connects directly the
several peoples yes earth
No é difficult explain a change cultural.
Change and cultural conflict are normal characteristics of social systems, not
less than balance and harmony. The problem is not in finding harmony and the
balance, good for culture and society, and pernicious change and conflict.
No one can deny the existence of conflicts in any society. But we can
to assert that those more isolated societies go through fewer conflicts. And
the more complex the society, the greater its capacity to absorb conflicts.
We find two basic orientations around the problems of change that
they gather a majority two theoretical do subject:
Determinism economic (guidance Marxist;
Determinism cultural (M. Webber).

a) How much to determinism economic we highlight in summary:

Marx highlights the persistence of conflicts in any society;
-Os conflicts put necessarily two groups;
-O conflict é motor yes history
Structural factors of social change are: exogenous forces (intervene from outside of
system); and endogenous forces, which are generated by the very functioning of a
culture.
b) Regarding cultural determinism, Webber attempts to demonstrate how cultural values
they can determine a type of economy. What is cause for Marx is effect for Weber.

We, without leaning towards one theory or another, record both positions that
they illuminate in fact, from different angles the whole issue, or in part, of change
cultural two peoples.

[Link] discovery e a invention

The discovery and the invention constitute the starting points for the study of growth and
the cultural modifications and are the phenomena that promote change and the
transformation of culture (LINTON). With these phenomena, an attempt is made to respond to
interrogation of how we are born os elements cultural.

2.1.1. Understanding two terms discovery e invention.

[Link]. Common characteristics:

Both terms associate a idea of news
In both cases, it involves original elements within the lines of a certain
respective e society culture.
In fact, inventions belonging to different peoples other than one's own are recognized.
We recognize inventions from China, Russia, the United States, etc.; by what distinguishes them.
invented elements or discovered elements borrowed from the elements, which
they arrive a a culture yes with ways e functions developed.

[Link]. Specific characteristics

They are popularly talked about discoveries, as a result of chance; and of invention, as
intentional. But this distinction is not satisfactory; for example, the discovery of new
chemical element is the result of a deliberate process that is completely based on
motivations.
And even in causal discoveries, the important factor from a cultural point of view, does not
it is merely the recognition of a phenomenon, but rather the perception of what this phenomenon
it involves and the understanding of its potential fields of application. Without this application of
processes, LINTON states, the discovery will remain isolated information,
devoid of any meaning social.
The same author presents the example of chemical compounds, whose existence is known,
but for which no application was found. They are latent elements, he said, that only become
they will become functional assets when some inventor finds a way to combine them with
other knowledge in order to produce socially significant results.

2.1.2. Definition
According to LINTON, cited by MARTINEZ (2003:58), discovery is any addition of
knowledge. In turn, invention is any new application of knowledge.

2.1.3. Explanation
In the process of cultural change, it is the application of knowledge-invention that has
functional importance for culture, which is why it is necessary to refer to all
active elements, developed within the framework of a certain culture and
society how being inventions.
Every new application of knowledge requires the exercise of rational functions that
belong exclusively to individuals. Societies as such are incapable of
to think, and therefore, to invent. Individuals are the only agents of invention.
The force that drives the inventor can be an inner urge, prestige or the
reward. Different cases are pointed out for small-scale societies and for
in technically advanced societies. In a non-industrialized society only when
there arises the awareness that some of your needs are not being met
adequately, it is that the invention may bring prestige to the inventor. Under conditions
normal such crises are rare.
When a society finds itself in a new natural environment that makes impractical
Some of your economic techniques, the best solution is to borrow.
The crisis situations, in which it is more urgent to invent, are those in which the very
the existence of society and culture is threatened: appearances of the Messiahs, inventions
social e religious, etc.
All cultures include examples of inventions in all fields, at least from
small inventions. This cannot be explained by the assumption that the inventor is a
an instrument that society uses to satisfy its needs and to whom
reward for efficient work. It cannot be explained solely on the basis of desire
individual of profits economic or of prestige.
Social recognition and the hope of reward are stimuli for invention, but
not all stimuli, there must be something else that resides in psychology of
inventor, which leads him to strive to produce new things, regardless of the
social meanings that they imply. (Linton, quoted by MARTINEZ, 2003:58-59)

2.1.4. The Inventor

There is an awareness of the cultural deficiencies existing within itself.
group. And usually this awareness is taken on by someone that we can
to consider in a certain sense out of the ordinary: they stand out for their perception of flaws
cultural e hair effort deliberate used in order a overcome them.
Sometimes inventions are not accepted by society because the climate is not yet conducive.
not all the conditions for your incorporation into the group in question have been met. This
demonstrates that the inventor is not an unconscious agent dominated and directed by
society. Normally at the base of an invention and the effort of the agent there are motivations
personal and greatly complicated factors and a complex set of circumstances.

2.1.5. Classification
According to MARTINEZ (2003:60), inventions can be classified in the following
order:

[Link]. Classification Descriptive

Inventions technological;
Inventions social
Inventions religious.
There are difficulties in drawing boundary lines in this classification, as some can take on
aspects the others.

[Link].Classification Finalist
Basic inventions: those inventions that involve the application of a new principle or of
a new combination of principles. It is basic in the sense that it opens new
potentialities of progress and is intended, in the normal course of events, to
to become foundation of all a series of others inventions.
Improvements inventions: it refers to the modification of some previous invention.
term aimed at increasing its efficiency or making it applicable to some new
end.

2.1.6. Environment Cultural

The knowledge embodied in every invention comes from the cultural environment of the inventor in
its majority and all the inventor acts on the heritage of previously acquired knowledge
acquired. Everything that is new, states Linton (cited by MARTINEZ, 2003:61), comes from
directly of others things preexisting.
In a certain sense, it can be said that the culture in which the inventor operates limits their action.
Certain inventions would be incomprehensible outside the cultural environment where they originated.
that culture provides what we could call the tools of work and, at the same time
time controls the course of invention. Based on this principle, interests are discussed.
culturally established, which causes some peoples to focus on certain aspects and others,
aspects different.

Selection/Acceptance
Every invention that society incorporates into its cultural heritage is victorious;
Factors dominant are os interests yes society;
In their entirety, the factors are complex and vary from society to society;
Mechanical inventions in general are well accepted;
Social and religious inventions always encounter a certain hostility, varying the
yours gray of society for society
In all os cases, it is about always of um slow process;
The number of inventions incorporated into culture and progressive enrichment is reduced.
from your culture, no society has ever employed even a tenth of the capacity
the creativity of their members. So all cultures grow mainly at the expense of
loans.

2.2. Diffusion
The whole human group borrows more elements of culture than the initial ones, due to
what o a phenomenon of the diffusion of culture undisputable.
é
In this process, we observe exchanges and swaps, the propagation of elements of a
specific culture for another. For this to happen, it is necessary that there are contacts
among the peoples. The diffusion of cultural values does not occur mechanically. It is not about
a homogeneous and straight process. There are many and varied factors that contribute
for what he give a diffusion of values cultural.

2.2.1. Definition
According to Linton, cited by MARTINEZ (2003:64), cultural diffusion is the transmission of
cultural elements from one society to another.
The diffusion undeniably contributes to the progress of peoples and the cultural growth of
humanity in two senses:
Stimulating o growth yes culture how um everything;
Enriching o content the cultures particulars.
With this process, it was not necessary for each society to perfect each one on its own.
steps in the dynamics of one's own cultural development.

2.2.2. Principles
MARTINEZ (2003:64-65) illustrates two central principles in the process of cultural diffusion, which
a to follow they are pointed:

[Link] Principle yes Proximity Geographical

Under equal conditions, cultural elements will be adopted first by
societies that are closer to the points of origin of a certain trait
cultural.
This principle arises from the need for contact and time for a cultural trait
be spread. Several examples can be illustrated, such as the alphabet: from Semites to
Phoenicianse of these the Greeks e the logo of the Romans e other peoples.

[Link]. Principles the Survivals Marginals

O trace cultural extends to the societies next;
As it spreads to other cultures, modifications occur at the origin;
The cultural trait that has spread (old trait) remains alive in the culture where it was assimilated and
disappeared or suffered modifications na culture of origin.

2.2.3. Irregular Dissemination

The dissemination of cultural traits never occurs in a constant and uniform manner and even
the dissemination of cultural traits originating from the same original source has
commonly a different development. For example, the cultivation of corn and ceramics.
An intermediate group, placed between a diffusing group and another receptor, can become
barrier and even halt the diffusion. So we can say that cultural traits are
they disseminate irregularly.

[Link] of Elements
The diffusion of a single cultural trait rarely occurs. It is normal for groups to diffuse.
Cultural elements, one cultural trait carries one or more other traits in its diffusion.

2.2.5. Agents
According to MARTINEZ (2003: 66), diffusion requires the presence of a pole in the process.
emitter and a receiving pole. That is, the agents in the diffusion process can be:
O donor
O receptor.
O polo but important é o receptor.

Three Phases
a) Presentation of cultural traits that require contact and these can be:
Complete (by units);
Sporadic;
Isolated.

b) Acceptance two traces cultural

c) Acceptance two same na culture receiver.

2.2.7. Factors of Influence

a) Factor time
b) Communicability intrinsic do own trait cultural
c) The technical elements are but easy.

2.2.8. Difficulties of Incommunicability

a) Emotions, reactions linked a certain patterns;
b) Concepts no manifestos no behavior
Values e attitudes vital hidden.

2.2.9. Reaction of Receiver Group

a) Freedom, voluntariness na acceptance;
Factors what they control a receptiveness
Utility;
Compatibility with a own culture
Prestige do donor;
A fashion.

2.3. A Acculturation
The term acculturation can be used as a synonym for socialization, education, or.
conditioning. However, some authors prefer to use the term transculturation in
detriment of acculturation.

2.3.1. Definition
Considers culture as something static and frozen, and the influences of a social group on
another process of deconstruction of identity, deformation. It is associated with the idea of
extinction, decharacterization/deconstruction social, cultural and loss of identity. Concept
not very appropriate for the current context, as per anthropological currents.
contemporary, a culture no die, she it resignifies.
They are the phenomena that arise where groups of individuals with different cultures coexist.
they are in continuous first-hand contact, with subsequent changes in patterns
from the original culture of one of the groups or of both (MARTINEZ, citing Herskovits,
2003:67).

2.3.2. Generalities
a) Contacts;
b) Mutual loans;
c) Dominant group.

In any contact, all the peoples involved mutually take

borrowed. A position that would not accept this principle is psychologically
unsustainable. Human beings and human groups are never totally passive. Even
even slaves and prisoners react to their situation in an effective way until
point to change or influence cultural change. There is abundant evidence that they resisted
African cultures to the incursions of Europeans and the direct influence of African life on
Europeans who lived and live in Africa (Fernandez, cited by MARTINEZ, 2003:68).
The term acculturation does not imply that the cultures that come into contact must ever
distinguish between they how being some of them superior to others.
The transmission of culture occurs when two social groups come into contact.
When a group forces changes in the ways of life of a conquered people, it is
called dominant group. These are situations that keep repeating throughout history: the
Muhammad's dominance in North Africa and in other countries, the Incas of Peru over the
American local groups, Nilotic invading peoples over the farming peoples of Africa
oriental e os peoples colonialists of all os times.
Aside from the greater or lesser dominance of one people over another, in all situations
recorded by History, they differ in degree and not in kind when a people tried
reger os modes of life of outro people.
2.3.3. Types of Contacts
a) Hair size:
Populations whole;
Segments;
Smaller groups;
Individuals.

b) Hair reception
Friendly
Sem contempt
No use yes strength
Without domain politician
Without domain economic
Abundance of resources.
Hostile
O contact hostile no impede o exchange cultural.

c) By equivalence
Between groups equals em size or between groups unequal;
Between groups equal no complexity cultural or unequal;
Contacts no own habitat

2.3.4. Situations in what himself give a Acculturation

a) Obligation or voluntariness of the acceptance of the cultural elements of a people by
other;
b) When does social and political equality occur between the peoples in contact;
c) When one people dominates another; three situations can occur:
Domain political more no social
Domain political e social
The social superiority of a group is recognized without there being political dominance.

2.3.5. The Cultures or Resulting Cultural Traits

a) The borrowed element is always fused with the existing one; it is the creative dynamics;
b) The borrowing is selective: the elements of one culture presented to another can be
oils you rejected.

2.4. A Desculpturation
The phenomenon of desculturation is regarded as the negative aspect of the dynamics process.
cultural, because it subtracts or destroys cultural o heritage.
It is in this sense that Bernardi, cited by MARTINEZ (2003:71), prefers to define the
deconstruction as simply the destruction of cultural heritage.

2.4.1. Causes
The causes of this process can be internal or external. Let's analyze, then, the causes of
process of deculturization
a) Internal: energy losses of the culture itself (reduces the strength of individuals and of
community, and it is eliminating the vitality of cultural traits that, if there is no
process regenerator fall in disuse e they disappear);
b) External: crises originated for contacts cultural.
The crises have contrasting effects depending on the nature of the encounters (peaceful, violent,
free, oppressive or in any other way). It can be stated that a novelty that arises
in any sector of life (economic, political, religious or technical) brings with it
inevitably a break from the original cultural identity. But authenticity thus
pure saying has, in fact, a value in a certain relative sense, as culture moves,
it transforms, then contrary would perish.

2.4.2. Modalities
1 - Deculturalization happens imperceptibly and slowly, affecting one or another.
cultural trait. In this subtle way, it changes the lifestyle of a community. In
In practice, we observe what has ceased to belong to the living and current culture of a people.
Such phenomena, in themselves, indicate, in fact, the disappearance of cultural traits in
issue, hair what he they becometrue indices of desculpturation.
2 –Phenomena that occur in a traumatic way. Such phenomena disseminate
tears and blood: episodes of genocide, tragic extermination of people, associated many
times to the programmed calculation of crop destruction; the slave trade, the fields
Nazis, the current racial exterminations, is a shame for humanity, for those who practiced them or
still practices them, of those who approved them or still approves them, of those who consented or
consents, from those who he silenced or silences and did not protest or does not protest.
The aberrant doctrine of racial superiority, with which culture was identified, was
time as an absolute criterion of judgment. During colonialism in many parts of the world.
many of the punitive expeditions, or the so-called pacification of the territories, were
true acts of extermination. The latest cases of genocide recorded in
Our days present themselves with the same gravity as past times.

IV. RELATION BETWEEN A ANTHROPOLOGY E A EDUCATION

Education is always based on the belief that man has the ability to intervene.
in its evolution or, at least, to embrace it within the scope of its anthropological meaning. The
what does it mean that the positivism inherent in behaviorist positions, when used
explicitly or implicitly by prospective pedagogies, ultimately translates to
for an authentic exponentiation of the humanist legacy and all its ideology
(CARVALHO, 1998:139).
Considering that anthropology studies the history of human development in its
everything, in its origins, use and customs, race, adaptation, evolution to the environment they are
considered social heritage, education aims to observe the programs of
appropriate education to achieve such objectives, in order to preserve social values.
In his book Psychoanalysis and Anthropology, Geza Roheim cites the example: 'of the Kaigang,
currently living as nomadic refugees in the mountains between Argentina and the
Brazil, after being expelled from the plateau where they practiced corn farming.
The trauma caused by the separation from their 'natural' habitat has made the Kaigang a people
anxious and uninterested in social relationships, with suicide being a common practice
between they (CASAL, 1996:28).

ANTHROPOLOGY PEDAGOGICAL E ANTHROPOLOGY EDUCATIONAL

If, in fact, when it emerges as an anthropology, it seems to insert itself into the set of
anthropological disciplines specific to the social sciences in general, at the same time, their
pedagogical character ultimately imparts a doctrinal face to it, or perhaps better, a
normative features that are difficult to reconcile with those. Therefore, some authors prefer
to call it educational anthropology which, in principle, resolves the difficulty
previously, generates, however, another: the remark in this way, for the field of sciences
anthropological and educational sciences, here arise the questions related to
epistemological instability of recent times. On the other hand, there are some doubts about
the legitimacy of the proposed substitution since everything suggests that the fields of one and of
Another – from pedagogical anthropology and educational anthropology – seem not to
rather, and much less merge. While educational anthropology is situated
much more on the side of the sciences, such as sociology, which study education as a
autonomous and external object, with strong social and cultural contours, anthropology
pedagogical emerges directly involved in the construction of facts and discourses
educational, reaching those relating to certain authors, their formulations and the
your interventions. The idea of an anthropagogy, understood as a 'practical science-
the normative of human development is close to this last conception (CARVALHO,
1998:70-71).

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PEDAGOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY

PHILOSOPHICAL
When organized under these conditions, educational anthropology studies the aspect
educational related to cultural phenomena, predominantly interested in there, or
through descriptive approaches and comparative analyses (in support of planning
educational), or by the study of education as an effect or action of enculturation. In all
the circumstances, the study of behaviors within the scope of personal learning and
social, as well as the establishment of rules of the anthropological method occupy a
a large part of the concerns present in the research work of this
anthropology.
Educators will ultimately find in the anthropological method the foundation for new
educational attitudes. Some see education as a system that, traversing all
the organizations and social agents, in an incessant dialectic with the models and processes
cultural, therefore, must be understood and explained in order to be managed (CARVALHO,
1998:80-81.

V. CONCLUSION

In concluding this work, it is necessary to emphasize that the processes of dynamism

The cultures presented in this epilogue can be studied in all and any society.
long live. That is, they are processes that occur in all societies and undoubtedly guarantee
some, a your continuity.
In short, it can be said that a man belonging to a culture must internalize it in order to
to be able to identify oneself in it. As children, we are induced from an early age to practices that
I remind the need for us to immerse ourselves in the culture that is inherent to us,
to learn about our culture. This aspect basically refers to enculturation.
Now, in this approach, we were able to mention two other quite aspects.
important in cultural dynamics: discovery and invention. As man is not a being
passive in the cultural dynamics, he is subject to discovering and inventing new things that
 contribute to social development. In this sense, it becomes clear that the
discovery is any increase in knowledge and invention is any new application of
knowledge.
In the role of the epilogue, we ended up also mentioning diffusion, which would be transmission.
of elements cultural of a culture for a another.
As for acculturation, it implies the contact of two cultures for the first time,
originating in this contact processes of social change in one or both cultures. By
In other words, acculturation would beo crop mixing process.
At the end of the work, we also left a concept that is extremely important in
cultural dynamics: deculturation. This refers to the process of loss of heritage
cultural or be it, a your destruction.
It was in this sense that efforts were made to bring the presentation to the mercy of
present work, in the hope that it has been of deep reflection around the dynamics
cultural e two processes what nela occur.

VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY

CARVALHO, Adalberto Dias de. Education as an Anthropological Project. 2nd Edition.

Afrontamento Editions. Porto. 1998.
CASAL, Adolfo Yanez. Anthropology and Development - The Communal Villages of
Mozambique. Edition Ministry of Science and Technology, Scientific Research Institute
Tropical. Lisbon. 1996.
MARTINEZ, Francisco Lerma. Cultural Anthropology–Guide for Study. Paulinas Edition.
Maputo. 2003.
DI NAPOLI, George. Socio-religious Anthropology. Course of the Faculty of Missiology.
Pontifical Gregorian University. Rome. 1985/86.
BOKA DI MPASI, Londi. Religion and Culture in Africa. Course in the Faculty of Missiology.
Pontifical Gregorian University. Rome. 1986.

i
Text organized by Professor: Francisco Ercilio Moura