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EQUILIBRIUM OF
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

2.1 Introduction
An engineering structure is an assembly of components interconnected with
each other and designed to be capable of being immobile when external forces
are acting on it. Right from buildings to electronics casings, we have structures
that withstand limited external forces to remain in static equilibrium. Every
engineering structure is designed to serve a certain function in day to-day life.
It endures the influence of external environment for a reasonable period of
time. The external environment may be in the form of, say, mechanical loads,
thermal loads, electromagnetic interactions and chemical interactions.
There are many kinds of structures based on specific engineering appli-
cations. It is important to know the loads that these structures withstand for
designing these structures safely. Civil engineers need to do analysis to de-
termine internal forces in structures such as bridges, buildings, towers, dams,
piers, pavement slabs, pipelines, tanks and many other civil engineering struc-
tures. Similarly, an aircraft structure has to be analyzed to determine forces op-
erating at various stages of aircraft operation. Ship hull, ship structures such
as stiffened panels are parts of a ship that attract the attention of a naval archi-
tect. Chemical engineers deal with pressure vessels, reactors and other similar
structures that need to be analyzed and designed to withstand appropriate
loads. The machine parts and their supports have to be designed to stand the
operating and idling loads that arise in machines designed by mechanical en-
gineers. Transformers, electronic circuit boards, etc. are structures which are
of interest to electrical engineers.
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Analysis of a structure for internal forces is one of the most important

steps in a design procedure. Though engineering applications vary widely,
the principles of mechanics that govern the forces sustained by these structures
and their associated movements remain the same.
Based on the design requirements, various types of loads that affect inter-
nal forces in a structure can be identified:
1. The self-weight of the structure itself along with other immovable fittings
in the structure that contribute to the weight, is grouped together as dead
loads.
2. The movable items and the moving loads that act on the structure are
grouped under live loads.
3. Apart from this, loads such as wind loads, snow loads, soil pressure, hy-
drostatic pressure and centrifugal forces act on different types of struc-
tures, as the case may be.
4. Loads such as impact loads and earthquake loads cause heavy damage
to the structures, but since these are occasional, such loads are many a
time not accounted for in the design of the structures.
5. In structures such as turbines, jet engines and combustion cylinders,
loads due to increase in temperature, usually called the thermal loads,
play an important role

2.2 Classification of Structures

The idealized structures may be one-dimensional, two-dimensional or three-
dimensional, representing significance on one-, two- or three-dimensional anal-
ysis. In a one-dimensional structure, the forces are acting only along a single
dimension (or line) and therefore, reduced number of equilibrium equations
only need to be used to solve for the unknowns in these structures.
Most common idealized structures fall into two-dimensional (planar) or
three-dimensional (spatial) categories. In a planar structure, all forces act along
a particular plane, and forces are absent in directions perpendicular to the cho-
sen plane. Hence, as mentioned before, reduced number of equilibrium equa-
tions only need to be used to solve these structures. Typically, in a planar
structure, if the plane in question is the xy plane, then, the following equations
have meaning:

∑ Fx = 0 ∑ Fy = 0 ∑ Mz = 0 (2.1a)

where Fx and Fy represent forces in the x and y directions respectively and Mz

represents moment of forces about an axis perpendicular to the plane passing
through a point on the plane. Thus, there are only three equations of equi-
librium available for the free body diagram of a planar structure. In a spatial

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EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS ■ 41

structure (3-D structure), forces act in all three mutually perpendicular direc-
tions and, therefore, all the six equations of static equilibrium are meaningful.
Of the six equations, three equations are force equilibrium in three directions,
and the other three are moment equilibrium about three mutually perpendic-
ular directions at a given point, say A,

∑ Fx = 0 ∑ Fy = 0 ∑ Fz = 0

∑ Mx A = 0 ∑ My A = 0 ∑ Mz A = 0 (2.1b)

h
θ

C B A
L

Figure 2.1: Planar system of rigid bodies - An example

In this chapter, we will focus on structures with members that have a

unique set of internal forces acting within the members of the structure. To
understand this classification of structures based on internal forces, let us look
at the worked-out example solved in chapter 1 in section 1.7, which is depicted
in Figure 2.1.

FBD
D y

x
FBD
P
C B θ A Ax
FBD =2P / sin θ
B
L/2 L/2 Ay
FBD

Figure 2.2: (a) Free-body diagram of member BD (b) Free-body diagram of

member ABC

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FBD FBD
D D

E E
Sectioning
plane FBD
B E
B

FBD FBD

Figure 2.3: Internal forces in member BD

Examine the planar system of rigid bodies shown in the figure. There are
two bars ABC and BD connected with each other at B and supported on a rigid
wall at A and D. Let us examine the nature of internal forces that are likely to
develop within each of these members. For doing this, we need to first draw
the free-body diagram of each of the two members as shown in Figures ??
and ??, respectively. Solving for forces on member BD at points B and D, we
find that the forces on points B and D are equal and opposite and are along
the axis of the member BD (since there is no external load on BD), as shown
in Figure ??. In order to reveal or expose internal forces within the member
BD, we need to make a fictitious cut at, say a point E, perpendicular to the axis
of the member between the points B and D on the member as illustrated in
Figure 2.3. Considering equilibrium for each of the portions of BD, i.e. equilib-
rium of BE and ED separately, we find that the only internal force exposed at
E is also a force that is perpendicular to the cut section and along the length of
the member BD. These sets of forces, equal and opposite occurring at B and E
as well as at E and D, are directed such that they cause a pull or elongation in
member BD, as shown in the figure. This kind of set of internal forces is called
tensile internal force. If the directions are opposite those shown in the figure,
with negative results found out, they are called compressive internal forces.
There are many members for which the internal forces are only tensile or
compressive axial forces. A structure in which all internal forces are acting
along the axis of the members is called a truss.

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Sectioning plane
P FBD
F B A
C HA
x
(a) Free-body of member ABC VA

P
C MF MF FBD
F F B A
HA
HF HG
x VA
VF VF
(b) Internal forces in member BC

Figure 2.4

Now, let us examine the member ABC. Let us cut the member at a point
Fbetween points C and D as shown in Figure ??. On using equilibrium condi-
tions and drawing the free body diagram of the portions CF and FBA, as shown
in Figure ??, we find that the internal force acting at F are a force along the cut
equal in magnitude to the force P at C, and opposite in direction and a moment
equal to the product of force P and distance CF = x, acting in the anticlockwise
direction. Unlike the member BD, in part CB of member ABC, the internal
force system consists of a force along the plane of cutting (perpendicular to
the length of the member) and a moment about an axis perpendicular to the
plane of the paper. The force along the cutting plane is usually called the shear
force. The moment at Fcauses a bending action on the portion CD. Thus, the
internal moment resultant is called the bending moment. A one-dimensional
structure consisting of transverse loading where the internal force resultants
are in the form of shear force and bending moment only is called a beam.

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Sectioning plane
P FBD
B G A
C HA

VA
P FBD
MG MG
B G G
C HA
HG HG
VG VG VA

Figure 2.5: Internal force in portion AB

Similarly, in order to reveal internal forces in the portion AB alone, we

need to cut the member at some point G between points A and B and perpen-
dicular to AB as in Figure 2.5. Applying equilibrium, we find that at point G, a
force along the length of the member AB, a force along the cutting plane, and
a moment about the axis perpendicular to the plane of the paper act. Unlike
the previous portion BC of member ABC, in this portion AB, we find that there
is also an axial force which is acting on the member ABC. Such a member is
usually called a frame member. A structure which consists of such members,
whose internal force resultants are shear and axial forces along with bending
moments, is called a frame structure. If the internal axial force is zero, it be-
comes a beam structure. Therefore, beams can be taken to be a special class of
frame members.
In contrast to the type of member BD dealt with in the above example, if
rod BD is replaced with a cable, the results will be the same. However, the
cable cannot sustain compression if applied. To illustrate this, in the example
shown, if the force P is reversed in direction, no resistance will be offered by
cable BD since it cannot take compression. It should also be noted that cables
can not have bending moments. They can take only tensile forces; they are
quite flexible and can take different shapes unlike the truss member, which is
rigid. Hence, cables are a special class of members, which are no rigid. Special
care should be taken while dealing with forces in this class of members.
Thus, we can classify the structures based on the type of internal forces
that develop in their members. In the above discussion, we came across three
types of structural members, (a) truss member, (b) beam member, and (c) frame
member. In all these structures, the members are mostly prismatic members,
with one dimension considerably large as compared to the other two dimen-
sions. There are many more types of members available, based on the internal

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force classification. In Table 2.1, the members and their primary properties
based on the internal forces developed are listed.

Table 2.1: Classification of Structural Members

Structural Member Type of Internal Forces that Exist

Truss Axial force (tension or compression) only
Beam Shear force and bending moment
Frame Axial and shear forces and bending moments
Cable Tensile axial force only
Shafts Shear forces, tensional and bending moments
Pipes Shear and axial forces, tensional and bending moments

In the following sections, we will deal with each of the structural systems
and formulate analysis methodology for solving the systems for internal forces
in members. These internal forces will be useful for a designer to find out
whether the system is capable of taking the loads applied on it.

2.2.1 Axial Force Members

Loads that act on members having a single prominent dimension, as we have

already seen, can cause shear forces and bending moments. Inclined forces can
cause internal forces that act along the axis of the members. They are called
axial forces. There are members in which the nature of internal forces may be
primarily axial. Further, axial forces can also act on beam structures causing
internal axial forces in beams. In this section, we focus on finding the internal
axial force resultant distribution in the axial members.
A typical example of an axial member is a column or a pillar. The main
action is axial in this kind of members. There are many other examples of
structures that are idealized to be axial members or structures for the design
purposes, and for calculations related to one set of design forces. Trusses are
made up of members in which internal axial forces play a major role. These
structures will be dealt with separately in a forthcoming section. Other ex-
amples of axial force members or structures are masonry walls, monolithic
towers, chimneys, poles, legs of furniture, and the like.

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a P3 D

C
P2 X a FBC
B
y P2 X
x B
P1 y x
A
P1
A

Figure 2.6: Axial force members

Mainly two types of loads act on an axial force member. One type of load
is the body force which acts on every particle of the member (e.g., weight of
the member). The other type acts on the boundary or skin of the structure.
These forces can either be distributed or concentrated. Only equilibrium along
the length of the member need be used to solve for the internal forces in the
axial member. Internal axial force resultant at a point along the length of the
member can be found out by simply sectioning normal to the axis at the re-
quired point and applying equilibrium equations for the free body of any one
portion of the member thus obtained. For example, in the member AD shown
in Figure 2.6, the internal force in zone BC can be found out by sectioning at
a point between B and C and taking the free body of the sectioned part. The
axial force revealed due to sectioning can be computed by taking equilibrium
along the length direction of the member as shown, i.e.,

∑ Fx = 0 ⇒P1 + P2 + FBC = 0 ⇒ FBC = −(P1 + P2 ) (2.2)

Taking a small section at the right-hand side, we get a free body as shown.
Since FBC is negative, it has a compressive effect on that section and, thus, a
negative internal axial force conveys compressive internal force.
Since the external axial forces acting on an axial member may also change
continuously with length, the normal practice is to evaluate the expression for
internal axial force as a function of the lengthwise coordinate. The diagram
that represents the variation of the axial force is called the axial-force diagram.
In the following example, idealization and analysis of a simple engineer-
ing problem is illustrated for a clearer understanding of the principles in-
volved in the calculation of internal axial forces.

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Example 2.1 A square column as shown in Figure 2.7 has a cross-section of di-
mension 50 cm. The column is made of concrete with a specific weight 25
kN/m3 . At each of the levers, additional loads come on the column. Find the
magnitude of internal axial force in the column. Draw the axial force diagram
to represent the magnitude of the force (Take g = 9.81 m/s2 ).

500 kg 500 kg
3m

500 kg 500 kg
3m

500 kg 500 kg
4m

Figure 2.7: Square column with ax- Figure 2.8: Free-body diagram of
ial loads. column AD(Idealised).

Solution
Step 1: Idealization of the structure. The square column with its levers can
be idealized as a one-dimensional member loaded as shown in Figure 2.8.
Step 2: Calculation of loads.

(a) Magnitude of load coming on the column at the level of each lever is the
same (say, P). Then,

P = 500 kg × 2
= 500 × g × 2 N
= 1000g N = 9.81 kN

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(b) Magnitude of weight per unit length of the column (say, w)

Weight per unit volume = 25 kN/m3

Cross sectional area = 0.5 × 0.5 m2
Therefore, w = 25 × (0.5)2
= 6.25 kN/m

Therefore,
w = 25 × (0.5)2 = 6.25 kN/m

The load coming from the lever, P acts at that particular point of the
column as concentrated load. The self-weight (w) of the column acts through-
out the length of the column as a distributed load, as shown. Support at the
bottom of the column is removed and it is replaced by a reaction R as illus-
trated in the figure.
By taking total equilibrium of the idealized column in the x-direction,
we have
PA + PB + PC + w × L -R = 0

Substituting the magnitudes of the various forces, we get

9.81 + 9.81 + 9.81 + 6.25 × 10 − R = 0

⇒ R = 91.93 kN

Step 3: Calculation of axial forces. To calculate the internal axial force in the
column AD at a particular point, take section at that point and estimate the
internal resultant force at that point using total equilibrium.

(a) Axial force in portion AB

Cut a section at a distance x m from top between points A and B, and
express the axial force as shown. By equilibrium,

+
−→ ∑ Fx = 0 ⇒9.81 + 6.25 × x + Ax = 0

⇒Ax = −9.81 − 6.25x

Hence, AA = −9.81 kN
and AB = −9.81 − 6.25 × 3 = −28.56 kN

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(b) Axial force in portion BC

∑ Fx = 0 ⇒ 9.81 + 9.81 + 6.25 × x + Ax = 0

Ax = −19.62 − 6.25x

Thus,z AB = −38.37 kN, AC = −57.12 kN

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(c) Axial force in portion CD

∑ Fx = 0 ⇒ 9.81 + 9.81 + 6.25x + A x = 0

⇒ A x = −19.62 − 6.25x

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Hence,
AC = − 66.93 kN, AD = − 91.93 kN

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Figure 2.9: Axial-force diagram

Internal axial force throughout the column is compressive force. Figure

2.9 shows the axial force diagram of the column.

2.2.2 Trusses

Truss, as already pointed out in Section 2, is a structural assembly of members

that support the load primarily by taking internal axial forces. Usually, the
way it is assembled is responsible for the nature of internal forces in the mem-
bers being axial forces, even though the members are capable of taking other
types of internal forces. In practice, the truss members are connected to each
other by using guzzet plates and bolts/rivets or welds. These connections or
nodes are idealized as pin joints in the two-dimensional truss analysis and as
ball-and-socket joints in the three-dimensional truss inanalysis.

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Pratt Truss Howe Truss

Warren Truss K Truss

Baltimore Truss

Pratt Truss Howe Truss Fink truss

Trusses are used in many applications in engineering. They can be seen

in steel bridges, roofing systems, transmission towers, display boards, cranes,
etc. They are the simplest structures that can provide a framework that can
support any cladding in any system. They are extensively used in the olden
times. Some of the conventional bridge truss configurations are shown in
above figure . A few of the conventional roof truss configurations along with
their names are shown in above figure. Detailed description of each of these
truss systems is outside the scope of this text. Of late, better appearance, bet-
ter fabrication capabilities and, sometimes, economic considerations have re-
placed some of the conventional truss systems with other feasible structural
systems.

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F
F

(a)

(b)

F
F

Figure 2.10: Truss member: (a) Tensile action,(b) Compressive action

The internal forces in the truss members, which are axial forces, may be
either tensile or compressive. When a member is in tension, all the particles
of the member are being pulled apart. Therefore, when the free body diagram
of the member is drawn, the axial forces at the ends of the member will point
away from each other (Fig 2.10(a)). When the axial forces at the ends of the
member point towards each other, the action is compression, and hence the
member is in compression (see Figure 2.10(b)).

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Assembly of a conventional truss system

D E

√3 FBD FBE
P L
2 FAB FBC

FBD B FBE
A C
B Q FBD
B
FBE
L L
FAB FAB FBC FBC

Figure 2.12: Free-body dia-

Figure 2.11: Assembly of planar gram of pin B and members at
truss system. B

A truss system consists of straight members pinned at their ends to each other
or to a support. The pin is an essential element in a truss system that transfers
forces from one member to the other. In Figure 2.11, the assembly of a planar
truss is shown with more details of the joints. One member connected to an-
other by a pin joint or hinge is free to rotate about the pin through which they
are connected. There may be situations in which more than two members are
connected to each other through a single pin. In Figure 2.12, free-body diagrams
of pin B and the members connected to it are shown. Since the pin is a very
small body, all the forces on the pin are assumed to be concurrent

Figure 2.13: Skeletal drawing of planar stress

(pass through a single point B) at the centre of the pin and there is no
moment existing about the pin B. Since all the joints are pin connected in a

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truss, the usual way of drawing the truss is in the form of a skeletal drawing
of the truss with the supports as shown in Figure 2.13.
Before we go on to analyze a truss system for internal forces in members,
the following main assumptions and characteristics of a truss system may be
noted:

1. Forces in a truss member will always be along the axis of the member.
2. External loads are applied only at joints / pins in a truss system.
3. Members of a truss are joined with each other through pin joints.
4. Truss members are assumed weightless.

Statement 1 has been discussed already in this section. We now show that
the forces in a truss member will always be along the axis of the member.

FA FB

A B
(a) Inclined forces at ends A and B
VA VB

A HA B HB
(b) Resolved components of forces at A and B

Figure 2.14: Free-body diagram of truss member AB

Let us take a truss element AB as shown in Figure 2.14 and assume that it
is pinned at the two ends. Since, according to the idealization (b), there is no
external load acting on the member anywhere else apart from the joints, we
can draw the free-body of the member with forces only at the ends of the mem-
ber as shown in the Figure ??. The end forces can be resolved into components
along the axis of the member and perpendicular to it as in Figure ??. Since the
member AB is in equilibrium, moment of all the forces on the free body about
points A and B should be zero. Applying moment of the forces about point A,
one finds that the only participating force is the force component perpendicu-
lar to the axis at point B. Since the moment about A has to be zero to maintain
static equilibrium, the force component VB perpendicular to the axis at point B
should be zero. By a similar argument, the force component V A perpendicular
to the axis at point A should also be zero to maintain moment equilibrium at
point B. Thus, it can be shown that only axial forces are nonzero in the mem-
ber. Further the force equilibrium requires that H A and HB should be equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction.

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Assumption 2 is an idealization of loading on a truss system. This ide-

alization simplifies the analysis of a truss system. Very often, the trusses are
designed to ensure that the loads will be transmitted only to the joints (nodes).
In situations where the loading is distributed along the truss member, equiva-
lent concentrated end loads are always applied on the ends of the member.
Assumption 3 ensures that connectivity between members in a truss sys-
tem will be through pins only. Hence, if we isolate the pins that are acting at
the joints of a two-dimensional truss, we will be able to identify the forces that
are being transmitted on the pin by the members, connected at the joint F M .
These member forces must be in equilibrium along with the external loads F L ,
if any, acting on the pin. Hence, we must have for equilibrium of a pin joint of
the truss,

∑ F L
+ ∑ FM = 0 (2.3)
[Link] loads [Link] members at the joint

Equation (3.3) is a statement of static equilibrium of forces that are acting on

any joint. It is very useful in determining the magnitude of the unknown
forces of the members acting at a joint. When Eq. (3.3) is specialized to two-
dimensions, we get two scalar equations, which are written as

∑ FL1 + ∑ FM1 = 0
[Link] loads [Link] members

and
∑ FL2 + ∑ FM2 = 0 (2.4)
[Link] loads [Link] members

In Eq. (3.4), the additional subscripts 1 and 2 refer to components with respect
to a set of rectangular xy coordinate axes fixed in space. For a three-dimensional
truss system, the truss members connected at a nodal point are assumed to be
joined through a ball-and-socket joint. Hence, for a 3-d truss, we must include
an additional equation, which will be of the form

∑ FL3 + ∑ FM3 = 0 (2.5)

[Link] loads [Link] members

Subscript 3 in Eq. (3.5) refers to the components in the direction perpendicu-

lar to the plane defining directions 1 and 2. For a fixed rectangular coordinate
system, direction 3 is normally taken as the z-direction, positive vertically up-
wards. The use of Eqs. (3.4) and (3.5) for practical problems will be illustrated
later in section 2.3. A two-dimensional or planar truss can be developed from a
triangular base element having three nodes (pins or joints), and three straight
truss members (bars) which are usually assumed weightless. For every addi-
tional node (or joint), we require two more members to be added. Thus, for
the truss in Figure 2.13, for five nodes, the total number of members = 3 + 2
+ 2 = 7. For a spatial or three-dimensional truss, the base element will be a

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regular tetrahedron with four nodes and four truss members, each node being
a ball-and-socket joint. For every additional joint, in this case, we require three
more members to be added. Such trusses are called simple trusses.

Degrees of freedom, stability and determinacy of truss

systems
Before analyzing the truss for forces in members, it is important to study the
nature of the truss system we have at hand to be analyzed. In the following,
we will analyze the considerations related to stability and determinacy of a
truss system. The discussion that follows is based on the analysis given in the
Section 1.7, where degrees of freedom were studied.
Consider a two-dimensional truss as depicted in Figure 2.13. The truss
has five joints and seven members. The entire truss is in static equilibrium,
and stationary. Each of these joints restrains two degrees of freedom each.
This means that we can have 5 x 2 = 10 equations of equilibrium available
from the five pins at the joints. Removing the external constraints (supports) of
the truss system, we have a free body truss with three unknown components
of reaction. Since each free body of members will have one unknown, there
are seven unknowns corresponding to seven members that have to be solved
for. Thus, there are 7 + 3 = 10 unknowns to be solved. Since ten equations
are available, it is possible to solve that many unknowns which arise from the
truss structure.
In any truss system the unknowns are: (a) The reactions corresponding to
the restraints, and (b) The magnitude of the forces in each member. Further,
since no new equations can be generated from the equilibrium of members,
only the equilibrium equations from the free body of the pins/joints can be
used to solve for the unknowns.
Thus, in general, for a planar truss, the number of equations that can be
generated for the static equilibrium of the truss is equal to twice the number of
pin joints (p). This number (2 x p) should match with the number of unknowns
that arise in the truss system for it to be fully and uniquely solvable. Let the
number of unknowns that arise from making the entire truss as a free body
with support reactions be r and let the number of unknowns that arise from
member forces (equal to the number of members) be m. Then, the truss is said
to be completely determinable (or solvable) using the equations of equilibrium
alone if

m + r = 2p (2.6a)

Such trusses satisfying Eq.(3.6) are called determinate trusses, or just-rigid planar
trusses.
For a just-rigid three-dimensional or space truss, the number of equations
becomes three per joint and therefore, the condition for full determinacy of a

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space truss becomes

m + r = 3p (2.6b)

In Eq. (3.6) or (3.7), when the left-hand side (the number of unknowns) is
lesser than the right hand side (the number of equilibrium equations possible),
then, in order to solve the system for the unknowns, we have more number of
equations than needed. This will lead to more than one possible solution. In
other words, there is non-uniqueness in solution. There are more configura-
tions of the system possible and this can occur only if the system ceases to be
in static equilibrium, i.e., there is possibility of motion. Such a truss system is
called an unstable truss system or under-rigid truss.
On the other hand, when the left-hand side (the number of unknowns) is
greater than the righ-hand side (the number of equilibrium equations possi-
ble), then, in order to solve the system completely, one needs more number of
equations. Such a truss system is called an indeterminate truss system or over-
rigid truss. For such a system, we must also look closely at the deformations
that are caused in each member by the external loads. The deformations in
each member must be consistent with respect to each other so that the total
displacement of each joint is unique in a truss system. A statement of consis-
tency of the deformations in various members is called a compatibility condi-
tion. While the forces in a determinate truss are blind to the properties of the
members, the forces in an indeterminate truss will be functions of the section
properties such as the length of the member, the cross-sectional area, modulus
of elasticity etc. An analysis of indeterminate truss system is outside the scope
of this text.

2.2.3 Methods of Analysis of a Determinate Truss System

Method of Joints
The unknown forces in each member can be determined by applying the force
equilibrium equation for each joint in a truss. This is possible since the orien-
tation of the force vectors from each member at a joint is known a priori, and
the only unknowns are their magnitude. Typically, the analysis by the method
of joints is initiated at one of the supports, after determining the unknown
reactions from global equilibrium conditions of the truss system. Once some
member forces are determined, equilibrium of adjacent joints are taken up so
that we have some known forces acting at those joints. This method of analysis
of a truss is known as the method of joints.

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Figure 2.15: Free-body diagram of truss system.

To illustrate the method, here we will take the truss system shown in Fig-
ure 2.13. The free body of the entire truss system can be drawn as shown in
Figure 2.18. There are three unknown support reactions exposed while draw-
ing the free body namely, V A , H A and VC , the vertical and horizontal reactions
at point A and vertical reaction at point C, respectively. These three unknowns
can be directly solved by applying equilibrium conditions for the entire truss
system as free body.
The vertical support reaction at C can be found out by applying moment
equilibrium about point A. Point A is chosen for moment equilibrium since
the other two unknown reactions are concurrent at point A and will not take
part in the moment equilibrium at point A. Thus we get,

3
∑ MA = 0
⟲

± ⇒VC × 2L − P × (L + L/2) = 0 ⇒ VC = P (2.7)

4
Similarly, we can obtain from vertical force equilibrium,

P
VA =
4
and from horizontal force equilibrium,

HA = − Q

Now, we can apply the equilibrium equations of joint A to obtain the force
in the members AD and AB since there are two equations that can be generated
at joint A, and there are two unknowns present. Similarly, by applying the
force equilibrium to joint C, we can obtain the unknown forces in members
BC and EC. Now, if we apply the equilibrium equation for joint D, we can
determine the unknown forces in members DB and DE since the force in AD
is already known from the force equilibrium of A, and the external load P1
acting at D is known a priori. Similarly, the force in the member EB and DE
can be obtained by applying force equilibrium for joint E. We may note that in
this procedure we obtained the force in the member DE from the equilibrium
of joint D as well as from joint E. The value of force in member DE must be

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the same from both calculations. Further, we can also check that the values of
the forces in members AB, BC, DB and EB will all be in equilibrium at joint B.
The following are some of the points to be noted while solving a planar truss
problem using the method of joints.
• Number or name all the joints.
• Assume a direction for the unknown member forces.

Figure 2.16: Tension member

The best way to assign a direction is by assuming that every member is

in tension. When one gets a negative value as the magnitude of the member
force, then automatically the member is said to be in compression. A member
in tension usually pulls the joints at which it is connected, towards itself as
shown in Figure 2.16. Therefore, every unknown member force is assumed
to be directed away from the joint during calculation of the force magnitude
using equilibrium equations.

Figure 2.17: Skeletal sketch of the truss free body with forces on joints

The following steps can be adopted for the truss analysis.

1. Start from a joint that has only two unknowns. This can be at the support
points if the support reactions can be found out from the free body of the
truss system.

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2. Draw the skeletal sketch of the truss free body and represent forces on the
joints assuming each of the member forces to be tensile (see, for example,
Figure 2.17).

3. Solve for unknowns at all joints where you have two unknowns only.

4. Move to the adjacent joints in which one or more unknowns have already
been solved.

5. Take up the joints with the maximum members joining as the last joints
for either solving or for checking the calculations.

In addition, a few more tips will help solve the truss system with ease:

1. If there is a member connected at a joint with other members which are

perpendicular to the member, then it is easy to solve for the force in this
member, since an equation can be formed with only that member force
with equilibrium along the member direction.

2. It is always easier to orient the equilibrium equation directions such that

at least one direction coincides with the axis of one of the members.

3. If there are two inclined members connected to a joint that has no exter-
nal force, then both members are zero force members.

We have seen that the method of joints provides a systematic procedure

for evaluating the unknown forces in the truss members. To apply the method
of joints, we normally proceed by applying equilibrium, first at a convenient
joint and then at other joints. We find that only force equilibrium equation is
invoked while using this method since it is applied to joints which are ideal-
ized as points in space. Even if we require the force of only a few members of
an entire truss system, we need to solve almost the entire truss system to find
the forces in those few members. This is one of the main drawbacks in using
the method of joints. The method to be introduced in the next section can be
effectively used in solving for only a few member forces.
Method of sections
In the method of joints, we separated the truss into member free bodies and joint
free bodies to apply equations of equilibrium. It is a methodical way of sepa-
rating, thereby revealing all the member forces. However, in some cases, we
may be interested in evaluating the force only in a specific member in a truss
assembly.

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Figure 2.18: Free-body diagram of truss system.

Consider the truss shown in Figure 2.18, where we may be interested in

evaluating the forces in member DE. It may not be worth dealing with so many
free bodies as the number of joints in the system to solve for a single member
force. This is so, especially when the truss system contains a large number of
members.

Figure 2.19: Free-body diagram of a truss showing section a-a

Since the entire truss system is in equilibrium, any portion of the truss
separated into a free body will also be in equilibrium. This fact can be effec-
tively used here to extract information regarding the member force in member
DE. In order to obtain the member force in DE, we naturally have to section
the member DE. This is the only way the internal force can take part in any
equilibrium equation. If we take an imaginary section a-a cutting across the
members DE, BE and BC and remove the support at A and replace with the
support reactions, then we obtain a free body as shown in Figure 2.19. The
support reactions can be calculated as was done in the previous section by
taking the entire truss system free body and applying equilibrium equations
to it. Then, the free body in the figure has three unknown member forces ex-
posed or acting on it, namely, forces in members DE, BE and BC. The task is to
find the member force in DE. Therefore, we aim for an equilibrium equation

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in which the unknown member forces in BE and BC will not take part. The
moment equilibrium equation about joint B can be very well used to achieve
this. Thus, we get, by taking moment of all forces about joint B,
√
3
± ∑ MB = 0
⟲
⇒−VA × L + FDE × =0
2
or
√
P 3 P √ P
− × L + FDE × =0 ⇒FDE = √ = 3 (2.8)
4 2 2 3 6

We find here that we did not invoke the equilibrium of individual joints
while evaluating the force in DE. However, we invoked the system equilib-
rium to evaluate the reaction V A and the system equilibrium of a defined sub-
section of the truss to obtain the unknown member force FDE . This procedure
of evaluating the forces in specific members of a truss by invoking the equilib-
rium of the subsystem is called the method of sections. This is a very useful tool
employed to obtain specific information about particular member forces in a
determinate truss. It is in contrast to the evaluation of forces in every member
of the truss by the method of joints.
If we were to proceed by the method of joints, we would have to first
solve for the force equilibrium at joint A, and so obtain the force in member
AD. Then we seek to obtain the force in DE by applying force equilibrium at
the joint D. The task is simplified if we use the method of sections to solve this
kind of problem where only a few member forces are to be determined.
We can also combine the two methods to make the best out of them. In
the example problem, if the force in member DE is obtained, then we can use
the method of joints to obtain the other internal forces in members joining the
joints D and E directly without starting from the joint A.

Figure 2.20: section a-a exposing four unknowns

It should be noted, however, that this method needs a judicious way of

sectioning to obtain the appropriate free body to solve for the required member
forces. In most situations, it is a wise proposition to obtain a free body with

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utmost three unknown member forces. Sometimes, two member forces may
lie along the same line, in which case it is reasonable to have more than three
unknown member forces. This is illustrated in Figure 2.20 where the forces
F AB and FBC have the same line of action. The forces in members AD, AB, BC
and CE are exposed in this free body shown. Though there are four unknown
forces, AB, BC and CE are forces whose lines of action pass through joint C and
therefore, taking moment about C for equilibrium eliminates these member
forces and involves only the force in member AD, and thus that force can be
evaluated.
The following problems give more insight into solving truss systems for
member forces.

Example 2.2 An inclined tower truss subjected to wind load of 5 kN at joint C

and 10 kN at joint B is shown in Figure 2.21. Calculate all the member forces
in the truss, using the method of joints.
52'

3m 5 kN
36

D
C
4'
71 3
3m

E 4m B 10 kN
30 5

3m
8'

5m A
F

Figure 2.21: Tower truss

Solution (a) Check for determinacy. There are nine members in the truss
and there are three external support reactions to be found out. Therefore, in
Eq. (3.6), m = 9 and r = 3, thus m + r = 12. There are six joints/pins in the
structure (p = 6). Therefore, using Eq. (3.6) for a planar truss, the total number
of equations available to solve is 12 ( = 6 × 2). Since the RHS and LHS of
Eq.(3.6) match, the structure is determinant or just-rigid and can be solved for
member forces using equilibrium equations alone. The truss is also a simple
truss.

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(b) Method of joints. Free body of the entire truss. Free body of the truss with
support reactions and external loads is shown in Figure 2.21. Assuming the
entire truss as a rigid body, calculate the support reactions using equilibrium
equations. Taking the moments about the point F (moment equilibrium), we
get

3m
5 kN
C

3m
y B
10 kN
x

3m
HF F
A
5m
VF VA

Figure 2.22: Free body of the tower truss

∑ MA = 0
⟲

± ⇒VA × 5 − 10 × 3 − 5 × 6 = 0 ⇒VA = 12kN

Considering the vertical equilibrium of the entire truss, we have

+↑ ∑ Fy = 0 ⇒VF + 12 = 0 ⇒VF = −12kN

Taking the horizontal equilibrium of the entire truss, we have

+
−→ ∑ Fx = 0 ⇒5 + 10 + HF = 0 ⇒HF = −15kN

(c) Joint by joint analysis Figure 2.23 represents the skeletal sketch of the truss
free body, assuming all the member forces are in tension. Let us start using the
equilibrium of a joint with some known forces, typically one of the support
joints (say, A). Considering vertical equilibrium of joint A,

+↑ ∑ Fy = 0 ⇒12 + FAB = 0 ⇒FAB = −12kN

Taking the horizontal equilibrium of joint A,

+
−→ ∑ Fx = 0 ⇒−FAF = 0 ⇒FAF = 0kN

After calculating all the member forces at joint/pin A, next we can move to
joint B or joint F. Preference will be given to joint F because there are only two
unknown forces at joint F, whereas at B there are three unknowns.

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D 3 m FCD C
5 kN
FDE ° 5 2 ' FBC
y 36
F CE
'

3m
4
°3
x 71
4 m FBE
E 10 kN
8 ' B
FEF 30°5

3m
F BF
FAB
F 5m
-15 kN FAF A
-12 kN +12 kN

Figure 2.23: Forces in members of truss

Considering the vertical equilibrium of joint F,

+ ↑ ∑ Fy = 0 ⇒FBF sin 30◦ 58′ + FEF sin 71◦ 34′ − 12 = 0

Again,considering the horizontal equilibrium of joint F,

+
∑ Fx = 0 ⇒FBF cos 30◦ 58′ + FEF cos 71◦ 34′ − 15 = 0



−→

By solving above two equations, we get

FBF = 16.03kN FEF = 3.95kN

Then we can take the joint B or E for solving. But at E, there are three unknown
forces. Hence, joint B is more convenient.
Considering the vertical equilibrium of joint B, we have

+ ↑ ∑ Fy = 0 ⇒16.03 sin 30◦ 58′ + FBC + 12 = 0 ⇒FBC = −3.75kN

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Taking the horizontal equilibrium of joint B,

+
∑ Fx = 0 ⇒−16.03 cos 30◦ 58′ − FBE + 10 = 0 ⇒FBE = −3.75kN


−→

Now we can move to the joint C or E for solving. Let us take C. Considering
the vertical equilibrium of joint C, we have

+ ↑ ∑ Fy = 0 ⇒−FCE sin 36◦ 52′ + 3.75 = 0 ⇒FCE = 6.25kN

Taking horizontal equilibrium of joint C,

+
∑ Fx = 0 ⇒−6.25 cos 36◦ 52′ − FCD + 5 = 0


−→ ⇒FCD = 0kN
There are only two members meeting at joint D and no external force is acting
on the joint. Hence, the force in the two members will be zero.

⇒ FDE = 0

Take the joint E for checking, Then, calculating the algebraic sum of all vertical
forces at joint E, we obtain

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∑ Fy = 0 ⇒−6.25 sin 36◦ 52′ − 3.95 sin 71◦ 34′ = 0

+↑
Thus, the vertical equilibrium is satisfied.
Calculating algebraic sum of all horizontal forces at joint E, we get
+
∑ Fx = 0 ⇒−6.25 cos 36◦ 52′ − 3.95 cos 71◦ 34′ − 3.75 = 0



−→
Hence, the horizontal equilibrium is satisfied.
Points to ponder:

1. Irrespective of how you proceed, at joint D, there are only two member
forces FCD and FDE, and can be taken up for joint equilibrium initially
itself. The force in both the members will be zero; it helps in proceeding
from joint D to other point.
2. If member forces FCD and FDE are zero, are these members necessary for
truss, can we remove them?
3. The member AF has zero force. What is the necessity for such a member?
Member AF is critical for stability of the truss system. By removing AF,
we will find that the truss becomes an unstable truss. Therefore, from
stability consideration the member AF is necessary.

Example 2.3 For design considerations the height of the inclined tower in
the above example should be increased. Calculate all the member forces of this
modified tower truss, which is as shown in Figure 2.24a

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'
52
6
3 3m
E 5 kN
D
34'
71

3m
4m C
F 10 kN
3m
30 5

G 5m B
8'

'
34
26 34

3m
71

H 7m A
'

(a) Inclined planar truss (b) Skeletal free-body diagram

Solution: There are eight joints and twelve members, while the number
of unknown reactions at A and H is 4. Thus, m = 12, r = 4 and p = 8 so that the
Eq. 2.6(a) is satisfied. Hence, it is just-rigid or determinate truss. But it is not a
simple truss. (Why?)
Free body of the entire truss. The Free body of the truss with support reactions
and external loads is as shown in Figure 2.24b Assuming the entire truss as a
rigid body, calculate the support reactions using equilibrium [Link]
the moments about the point H, we have

∑ MH = 0
⟲

+ ⇒VA × 7 − 10 × 6 − 5 × 9 = 0 ⇒VA = 15kN

Considering the vertical equilibrium of the entire truss, we have

+↑ ∑ Fy = 0 ⇒VH + 15 = 0 ⇒VA = −15kN

Considering the horizontal equilibrium of the entire truss, we obtain

+
−→ ∑ Fx = 0 ⇒5 + 10 + HA + HH = 0 ⇒HA + HH = −15kN

It is not possible to calculate two reactions with one equation. Let us first
calculate all the member forces using the method of joints and then check for
horizontal equilibrium of the entire truss.

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Figure 2.25: Free body diagram of inclined truss

Figure 2.25 represents the skeletal sketch of the truss free-body, assuming
that all the members are in tension.
Since the procedure for joint analysis is already illustrated in Example 2.2,
we will now indicate only the sequence of joint analysis and show the member
forces in a table. We start our joint analysis with the joint E, since there are only
two members meeting at joint E and no external force is acting on the joint.
From this joint analysis, we can evaluate FDE and FEF . Next, by performing
a joint analysis at D, we can evaluate FDF and FDC . By performing a joint
analysis at F, we can evaluate FFC and FFG . Then, by performing a joint analysis
at C, we can evaluate FCG and FCB . The joint analysis at G will then yield the
forces FGB and FGH . Finally, the joint analysis at B will yield the member forces
FAB and FBH . The forces evaluated in the various members by performing a
joint analysis as indicated above, are shown in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2: Magnitude of the member forces in the inclined truss

Member Forces Value(kN) Member Forces Value(kN)

FDE , FEF 0
FDF 6.25 FBC -12
FCD -3.75 FGH 12.64
FFG 3.95 FBG -11.00
FCF -3.75 FBH 6.71
FCG 16.03 FAB -15.81

Now, for calculating horizontal reactions at the supports, take the hori-
zontal equilibrium of joints A and H. Let us first calculate horizontal reaction
at A using the above results from Figure 2.25

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Considering the horizontal equilibrium of joint A, we ob-

tain
+
−→ ∑ Fx = 0 ⇒15.81 cos 71◦ 34′ + HA = 0 ⇒HA

Taking the horizontal equilibrium of joint H, we have

+
−→ ∑ Fx = 0 ⇒6.705 cos 26◦ 34′ + 12.64 cos 71◦ 34′ + HH = 0

⇒HH = −10kN
Check these support reactions for horizontal equilibrium of the entire truss
which is given by the equation
HA + HH = −15kN
Substituting values for H A and HH , the LHS and RHS of the equation match
well.
Note: Here, in the truss in Figure 2.24a, the joints A and H are not connected
by a member. If member AH is added, the truss becomes over-rigid truss.
(Why?)
Example 2.4 Figure E2.4.1 shows a bridge truss with six panels each of length
4 m and loads acting at the pins C, F and H. Calculate the member forces in
DG and FH of the truss using the method of sections.

D I

6m
D I
HA
3m 3m

B L A C F H N
E J 20 kN
VA 20 kN 50 kN VN
A N
C F H K M 4m 4m 4m
24 m
20 kN 20 kN
50 kN
6 panels @ 4m = 24 m

Figure 2.27: Skeletal free-body dia-

Figure 2.26: Bridge Truss gram

Solution: Figure 2.27shows the free body diagram of the entire truss.
Taking the whole truss as a rigid body, calculate the support reactions at the
supports A and N. For moment equilibrium of the entire truss, take moments
about the point N.

∑ MN = 0
⟲

+ ⇒VA × 24 − 20 × 20 − 50 × 16 + 20 × 12 = 0 ⇒VA = 60kN

To calculate the vertical support reaction at support N, take the vertical equi-
librium of the entire truss. Then,
+↑ ∑ Fy = 0 ⇒60 − 20 − 50 − 20 + VN = 0 ⇒VN = 30kN

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There is no horizontal force acting on the truss. Hence, horizontal reaction at

the support A is zero.

i.e ⇒ HA = 0

To calculate the forces in members DG and FH using the method of sections,

we should take a section across those members. Let us first take the section
x-x across the members DG, EG, EH and FH, as in Figure 2.28, which shows
the free body of the truss up to the section. We can say that there are four
unknown member forces in these four members, and the forces along DG and
EG are concurrent at joint G, while the forces along EG and EH are concurrent
at E and those along FH and EH are concurrent at H. Hence, we can solve
for these four forces by using moment equilibrium equations, but it is a long
procedure and takes more time. Let us try with another section y-y, which cuts
across the members DG, DE and CF. In this case, we have only three unknown
forces. From Figure 2.29, it is clear that the member forces FDE and FCF are
concurrent at the joint F.

Figure 2.28: Section along x-x Figure 2.29: Section along y-y

By taking moments about the point F, we can eliminate the forces passing
through that point and the remaining is force in the member DG, which we are
supposed to find out.
Taking moments about the point F, for the equilibrium of the truss portion
shown shaded in the figure, we have

∑ MF = 0
⟲

+ ⇒ FDG × 6 + 20 × 4 − 60 × 8 = 0 ⇒ FDG = −66.67 kN

For calculating the member force in FH, let us take the section z-z, cutting
across the members FH, EF and BD. In this case also forces in members BD
and EF are concurrent at joint D and so, by taking moments about the point D,
we can calculate force in the member FH.
Considering moment equilibrium of truss portion up to the section under con-
sideration, shown shaded in Figure 2.30 and taking moments about the point

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D, we have

∑ MD = 0
⟲

+ ⇒ FFH × 6 + 20 × 4 − 60 × 8 = 0 ⇒ FFH = 66.67 kN

Instead of taking two sections for calculating the forces in two mem-
bers, as explained, let us take a section a-a which is passing through the mem-
bers DG, DE, EF and FH. Here we note that except one member force, all
the other unknown member forces are concurrent at some point. Figure 2.29
shows the free body diagram of portion of the truss to the left of this section
a-a (shown shaded). There are four unknown forces among which forces in
members DE, EF and FH are concurrent at joint F and forces DE, EF and DG
are concurrent at joint D. Hence, by taking moments about any one of these
two joints at which these member forces are concurrent, we can find out the
force that we are looking for.

Figure 2.30: Section along z-z Figure 2.31: Section along a-a

Considering moment equilibrium of the portion of the truss about the

joint F, we obtain

∑ MF = 0
⟲

+ ⇒ FDG × 6 + 20 × 4 − 60 × 8 = 0 ⇒ FDG = −66.67 kN

Taking horizontal equilibrium of the portion of the truss, we obtain

+
−→ ∑ Fx = 0 ⇒ FFH − 66.67 = 0 ⇒ FFH = 66.67 kN

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Figure 2.32: A Truss with no diag- Figure 2.33: Skeletal free-body dia-
onal bracing HB gram of the braceless truss

How to identify if the truss is stable or unstable? Let us examine the truss
just solved in the above Example E2.3. There are in all 12 members (m = 12),
four unknown support reactions (r = 4) and eight joints (p = 8). These num-
bers satisfy the Equation 3.6 Is satisfying this equation enough to ensure that
the unknowns are determinable? The answer is No. In the same truss, let us
make a small modification in the following way: The diagonal member BH is
removed and instead member AH is introduced as shown in Figure 2.32 By
doing this, none of m, r or p change and therefore, Equation 3.6 is again sat-
isfied. However, in the following discussion, we will show that the truss thus
formed is an unstable structure.
Looking at the modified truss structure, we notice that the portion
above BG, together with the member BG, is a rigid portion. Assume that it is
replaced by a rigid body, which has hinges at B and G as in Figure 2.33. It is not
difficult to recognize that this idealized structure is a mechanism since G and
B are free to move with respect to the support joints H and A. Care should be
taken to avoid such confusion about determinacy of a truss system. It should
be noted clearly that Equation 3.6 is a necessary condition for a determinate
truss, but not a sufficient condition to confirm the stability of the truss.
A question then arises as to how we can decide about the instability in
a truss system. To give an idea of how we can determine the stability of a truss
system, we will take Example 2.3 solved above.

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Figure 2.34: Triangular Truss

Let us take a simple triangular truss configuration using three ele-

ments with three joints as shown in Figure 2.34 Each pin has two degrees of
freedom arrested and therefore six equations can be generated from equilib-
rium conditions and there are three member unknowns thus rendering three
degrees of freedom to this formation. This formation, therefore, is equivalent
to a rigid body, which has three degrees of freedom if free (unsupported).
This triangular truss model of Figure 2.34, helps us in identifying the
portions of the any truss structure, that may be rigid. Referring the original
braced structure of Figure 2.24a, we find that DE, DF and EF form a trian-
gular configuration and therefore, DEF can be considered to be a rigid body
pinned at D and F. Proceeding in a similar fashion with respect to idealized
rigid body DEF and the members CD and CF, we find that the structure linked
by CDEF can be considered a rigid body pinned at C and F. Proceeding fur-
ther, finally, we can identify that BCDEFGH is a rigid body. Thus, we have
two rigid bodies, namely the member AB and the portion BCDEFGH pinned
at B, H and A. The configuration is stable if the number of degrees of freedom
is zero. Working in the same way as done in Section 1.7, we can find the num-
ber of degrees of freedom. Each body has three degrees of freedom (including
the rigid base). Therefore, here BCDEFGH, AB and AH (rigid base) are the
three bodies and therefore nine degrees of freedom are available. Pins A, H
and B take away 2 x 3 = 6 degrees of freedom through pin constraints, and
the rigid base takes away three degrees of freedom; thus, in entirety, nine dof
constraints exist. The difference in the total number of individual degrees of
freedom of bodies of a system and the number of constraints to motion gives
the degrees of freedom of the system. We find that the number of degrees of
freedom is zero for this case. Thus, the structure is immovable or, in other
words, is statically stable.
Considering the modification of the example problem as shown in Fig-
ure 2.32, we find that care should be taken to identify the redundancy in con-
straints existing at two points on rigid base AH and the member AH. The AH
member and the AH rigid base together form a single rigid body. As given in

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Chapter 1, as a word of caution, this should be carefully observed before pro-

ceeding further to calculate the number of degrees of freedom of the system.
Calculating on the same basis as mentioned in Chapter 1, thereafter, yields the
system with one degree of freedom and, therefore, is an unstable structure.
This is the best way to identify the instability in a truss system.

2.2.4 Beams

Beams, as described earlier in Section 2.2, are members that undergo primarily
bending while taking a load (see Figure ??). The internal forces that appear
in beams are bending moments and shear forces. The geometry of the beam
is usually prismatic and straight. Beams often form a part of frame structures.
Being an important structure in many applications, a good understanding of
the characteristics and analysis of beams is essential. In design, it is important
to kNow if the beam considered has the capacity to withstand the internal
forces that appear in the beam. From equilibrium conditions, it is possible to
arrive at the internal forces acting within the beams. This kNowledge helps in
finding out stresses, strains and displacements in a beam, which are vital for
establishing its resisting capacity for an external load.

Simply supported Beam Cantilever Beam

Propped Cantilever Beam Fixed Beam

Continuous Beam

Figure 2.35: Different types of Beams

Some examples of beam structures are shown in Figure 2.35 Unlike in

trusses, beam members can run continuously over the supports (continuous
beams, see Figure 2.35) and can have fixed supports

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b a w per unit length

P

B A
Δx
x
b' a'

MB MA
B A
Δx
VB (a) VA

Figure 2.36: Beams with transverse load distribution.

A beam is usually loaded transversely as shown in Figure 2.36. Some-

times, a concentrated moment could get transferred to a beam through another
structural component. Very rarely, one may encounter loads in the form of dis-
tributed moments. The external transverse loads are often concentrated forces
or distributed forces.
Beams can be idealized as line structures since only the dimension
along the length is necessary for the evaluation of internal forces of a beam.
As discussed earlier in Section 2.2, two kinds of internal force resultants exist
in beams.

Consider a beam that is subjected to some transverse load as shown

in Figure 2.36 Consider a section aa’ at a distance x from the left end. While
drawing the free-body diagram of a portion of the beam, we must reveal all
possible force resultants that would have been supplied by the adjacent (right)
portion of the beam in order to investigate the integral behavior of the beam.
As we have seen in section 2.2.3, the other two significant force resultants will
be the moment M A and the shear force VA . If another section bb’ is made at a
point close to the earlier section at a distance (x –x) from the left end, another
set of force resultants will be exposed, say moment MB and shear force VB . The
set of moments M A and MB cause a bending action on the beam and hence are
called bending moments. The shear forces VA and VB cause a shearing action
on the beam and hence are called shear forces.

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(a) Roller Support

Member
Pin (or rod) A
Bracket
Fixed -free beam
(c) 3-d Hinge
(b) Planar Hinge
MA
A
HA

(d) Fixed Support VA

Figure 2.37: Different types of Sup- Figure 2.38: Reactions at fixed

ports support

Different types of supports are shown in Figure 2.37for a beam. There

are primarily three kinds of supports that are often encountered in beam struc-
tures: a fixed support, a hinged support, and a roller support. A fixed support
arrests both rotation and displacement of the beam at its location. These con-
straints, therefore, introduce two reactions – a resultant moment and a resul-
tant force that can be resolved into a horizontal and a vertical force compo-
nents H A and VA respectively as illustrated in Figure 2.38. Whenever there
is an inclined concentrated load or a distributed system of inclined loading
acting on the beam, an axial reaction force H A will be induced at the support
A in addition to the vertical reaction force VA and the bending moment M A .
A hinged support, on the other hand, introduces only a resultant force that
can be resolved into a horizontal and a vertical force components (H A and VA )
respectively. This is true also for a roller support. The difference in these two
supports is, of course, the constraint to horizontal displacement introduced for
the hinge. This helps ensure stability/determinacy in a beam. It is only sym-
bolic, if we already kNow that we are encountering purely a beam structure.
The fixed support also introduces the horizontal restraint. The horizontal equi-
librium (direction along the length of the beam) is meaningful only in terms of
establishing stability in the beam structure.

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M M

M M
(a) Positive Bending Moments (b) Negative Bending Moments
y
x
z V V
V
V
(c) Positive Shear (d) Negative Shear

Figure 2.39: Sign convention used for Bending moment and shear force

In Figure 2.39, four separate pairs of the internal forces in a beam are
shown. Figure 2.39(a) depicts a beam with internal moments which produce
bending of the beam curving downwards. We notice that the moment at the
left side of the beam is clockwise and the right side moment is anti-clockwise.
In order to previously understand as to how the beam is bending at different
points along the length of the beam, it is necessary to follow a sign convention.
In this text, we will take the internal moments that cause the above effect to be
positive. In contrast, the beam curves above for a particular set of moments
shown in Figure 2.39(b), which are negative according the sign convention
that we are going to follow henceforth in this text. Another interpretation or
understanding of positive moments is as follows: The internal moment that
appears on a section whose normal is along the positive x direction, is positive
as per our sign convention, if it is anti-clockwise in action.
Similarly, for the internal shear forces, we will take the shear that
make the right-hand side to go up or, in other words, the shear directed along
the positive y direction on the section whose normal is along the positive x
direction, to be positive. In the figure, positive and negative shears are shown
in Figures 2.39(c) and 2.39(d) respectively.
The bending moments and shear and axial forces at any given sec-
tion can be evaluated by considering the static equilibrium of any of the two
sections that are isolated while drawing the free body of a beam. It is clear
that the bending moments and shear and axial forces vary along the length of
the beam. The variation of these bending moments and shear and axial forces
along the length of the beam can be represented by diagrams, called Bending-
Moment Diagram (BMD), Shear-Force Diagram (SFD) and Axial-Force Diagram
(SFD). We will illustrate the construction of BMD and SFD by considering the
following simple example.

Example 2.5 Consider a beam of length L, subjected to a concentrated

transverse load P at its mid span. The beam is simply supported at its ends as

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shown in Figure 2.40. Construct the bending moment diagram and the shear
force diagram for this beam

P
C
A B

L/2 L/2

Figure 2.40: Beam with a concentrated load

Solution: Step 1: Determination of the unknown reactions

Figure 2.41: Free body diagram of

the beam. Figure 2.42

The beam is idealized as a linear horizontal structure. We start our solu-

tion by obtaining the free-body diagram of the entire beam. For this purpose,
we remove the two supports and replace them by suitable equivalent force
systems. Since the beam is simply supported and has a concentrated vertical
load only at the mid-span, there will be only one unknown vertical reaction
force for each support. Let us represent the reaction at the left support as R1
and the reaction at the right support as R2 as shown in the Figure 2.41.
To determine the reactions R1 and R2 , we will consider the force and mo-
ment equilibrium of the entire beam. From force equilibrium of the beam, we
find that

R1 + R2 = P (2.9a)
Taking moments of the forces about the left end (A), we have
PL
= R2 L (2.9b)
2

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Solving for the unknowns R1 and R2 , from the Eq. (2.9a) and (2.9b), we
get
P
R1 − R2 =
2
Step 2: Free-body diagram for the portion to the left of the load P,
(0<x< L/2). Consider the section at a distance x from the left end. A bending
moment M and a shear force V will get exposed at the cut section as shown
in the Fig. 2.42. We will now consider the static equilibrium of this section in
the presence of the exposed shear force and bending moment. We find that
(taking force equilibrium and moments about the point X at the right end of
the section),
P Px
V = −R1 = − and M = R1 x = (2.9c)
2 2
Step 3: Free body diagram for the portion L/2 < x < L

Figure 2.44: Shear-force and

Figure 2.43 bending-moment diagrams.

Consider the section at a distance x from the left end, beyond the
position C of the load as shown in Figure 2.43. Exposing the unknowns M and
V for this section and again considering the static equilibrium of this portion
(and taking moments about X), we get
P L P
V = R1 + P = , M = R1 x − P ( x − ) = ( L − x) (2.9d)
2 2 2
Step 4: Drawing the BMD and SFD. We plot the expressions for the
bending moment diagram and the shear force diagram as illustrated in Fig-
ure 2.44. We observe that there is a jump in the shear force diagram from
a positive shear to a negative shear. The jump is brought about at C by the
applied load P, and the value of this jump is equal to P. We also notice that
the bending moment varies linearly from zero at A with distance, and has a
maximum value of Mmax = PL/4 at the midpoint C of the beam. The bending

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moment then decreases linearly and reduces to zero at the right end B of the
beam.
Relationship between bending moment, shear force and applied loads

Figure 2.45: Beam with a continuous load distribution

We now consider a beam that is being subjected to a continuous loading

of w per unit length as depicted in Figure 2.45. A continuous transverse load
may be in the form of the self-weight of the beam or any other distributed load
that the beam is carrying. This load is resisted by the transverse deformation
of the beam. We will now isolate an elemental section PQ of length dx at a
distance x from the left end of the beam and use the equilibrium of this section
to derive important relationships between w, V and M.
The left end of the element dx will be subjected to a shear of V and a
bending moment of M. Since V and M are continuous variables, their values
at a section dx from the section through P at x can be visualized as increments
over their values at section x. Hence, the bending moment at the point Q can
be represented as M + dM, and the shear force at Q can be represented to be V
+ dV. The various forces and moments on the infinitesimal element of length
dx are illustrated in Figure 2.45(b).
Consider the vertical force equilibrium of the element dx. From the equi-
librium of forces in the y-direction, we get

dV
V − w dx + (V + dV) = 0 ⇒ w = (2.10)
dx

Next, consider the moment equilibrium of the element dx. Taking moments
about the point Q on the right end of the element, we get

dx
M + dM + w dx + V dx − M = 0
2

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Taking the limit of dx tending to zero in the above equation, we get the follow-
ing relationship between the bending moment and shear force.

dM
V=− (2.11)
dx

Equations (2.10) and (2.11) give us differential relationships between the

applied load, the shear force and the bending moment in a beam. These rela-
tionships can be used to verify the form of curves in the shear force or bending
moment diagrams, which we construct for individual sections of the beam us-
ing equilibrium considerations.
Equations (2.10) and (2.11) can also be expressed in integral forms as

Z V2 Z x2
dV = w dx (2.12)
V1 x1

Z M2 Z x2
dM = V dx (2.13)
M1 x1

Here, the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to any two cross-sections of the beam be-
tween which there is no concentrated force or couple moment acting on the
beam. Also, Eq. (2.10) can be modified to express the applied load distribution
w in terms of bending moment M, by substituting for V from Eq. (2.11), thus
obtaining

d2 M
w= (2.14)
dx2

It should be borne in mind that Eqs. (2.10) to (2.14) automatically assume con-
tinuity of shear forces and bending moments with respect to x. In other words,
these Eqs. Are applicable only in the regions where there is no concentrated
force or couple moment acting on the beam.
Bending moment and shear force diagrams can be drawn by using the
above relations also. The integration of load distribution w can be used to find
the shear force variation along the beam. The variation of bending moment can
be calculated by integrating the shear force distribution. The discontinuities
that may arise due to idealization into concentrated loads etc., however, have
to be handled separately.
Example 2.6 A beam as shown in Figure 2.46 has a weight of 5 tons/m3 .
It is a prismatic member and the cross-section area is 500 cm2 . A weight of 300
kg is hung at one end as shown. Draw the bending-moment and shear-force
diagrams for the beam. Fine the magnitude and location of the maximum
bending moment. (Assume g = 9.81 m/s2 .)

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A
B
1.5 m C
4m

300 kg

Figure 2.46: Overhang beam with Figure 2.47: Free-body diagram of ide-
self-weight. alized beam

Solution
Procedure/Steps

1. Idealize and draw the idealized beam. Mark the critical points and mark
the axes.

2. Calculate the support reactions.

3. Find the expressions for different portions of the beam.

4. Draw the bending moment and shear force diagrams.

5. Verify the results by some checks.

6. Find the maximum bending moment by maximization of the expression

with respect to the entire coordinates.

Step 1: Idealized beam: The beam can be idealized as a line structure as

depicted in the free-body diagram (Figure 2.47).

(a) Calculation of loads:

1. Self-weight = 5 tonnes/m3 = 5000 kg/m3

= 5000 × 9.81 = 4.905 × 104 N/m3

Therefore, the load distributed along the length due to self weight is

w = 4.905 × 104 × area of cross section of the beam

= 4.905 × 104 × 500 × (10−2 )2

= 2452.5 N/m = 2.4525 kN/m

2. Hanging load at end A = 300 × g = 2943 N = 2.943 kN.

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(b) Support reactions: The hinged and roller supports at B and C re-
spectively offer vertical reactions at B & C, say R B and RC respectively.
(c) Fixing the coordinate system: The coordinate system is marked as
depicted in Figure 2.47.
Step 2: Calculation of support reactions: There are two support reactions and
we can generate two equilibrium equations, viz. vertical equilibrium and the
moment equilibrium of the entire beam ABC. Taking moments about point C,
we can obtain R B as

Z 5.5
∑ MC = 0
⟲

+ ⇒ −VB × 4 + 2.943 × 5.5+ (2.4525 × dx) × (5.5 − x ) = 0

0
(2.15)

Th last integral can be found out to be

Z 5.5 Z 5.5
2.4525(5.5 − x )dx ≡ 2.4525x dx
0 0

(Where x is the distance of the section a-a from the point C as shown in Figure
2.48.
5.5
x2 2.4525 × (5.2)2
= 2.4525 × = kN m
2 0 2
Substituting in Eq.a, we obtain

R B = 13.32kN m

Similarly from vertical equilibrium,

+↑ ∑ Fy = 0 ⇒ −2.943 − 2.4525 × 5.5 + 13.32 + VC = 0 ⇒ VC = 30 kN

Figure 2.48: Beam with support reactions

The support reactions are shown in Fig.2.45.

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Step 3: Calculation of expressions for bending moment and shear force at a

point ‘x’ from left end A.

Figure 2.49: Free-body diagram of a portion AX of the beam

There are two portions that can be identified here. Portion AB and por-
tion BC. In order to find the bending moment and shear force at any point X
in the portion AB, one needs to take a section along a − a at X as illustrated
in Figure 2.49. The free body of section part is shown with external forces and
internal force resultants V(x) and M(x). The positive sign convention is used
here. On the sectioned face X, where the normal is in the positive x-direction,
positive unknowns V(x) and M(x) are assumed.

Analysis in Portion AB (0 < x ≤ 1.5): Applying vertical equilibrium, V(x)

can be calculated.
Then,

+↑ ∑ Fy = 0 ⇒ −2.943 − 2.4525 × x + Vx = 0

⇒ Vx = (+2.943 + 2.4525x) kN

V = 2.943 kN, V = VB = +2.943 + 2.4525 × 1.5 ⇒ VB = (+6.622 kN)

X=1.5 X=0

Bending moment M(x): For the continuously distributed load, the moment about
the right end of the beam portion AX can be obtained by considering an ele-
mental segment dx’ of the beam with distributed load at a distance x’ from the
end A and calculate the equivalent moment of it about the end X of the portion
AX as illustrated in Figure 2.50

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Figure 2.50: Free-body diagram of portion AX showing element dx ′

Taking moments about the sectioned point X, for the portion AX of the
beam, we have
Z x
∑ MX = 0
⟲

+ ⇒ M(x) + 2.943 × x + 2.4525(x − x′ )dx′ = 0

0

⇒ M(x) = (−2.943x − 1.2263x2 ) kN m

Thus, MA = 0; MB = −2.493 × 1.5 − 1.2263 × (1.5)2 = −7.1736 kN m

Figure 2.51: Free-body diagram of portion ABX

Analysis of Portion BC (1.5 < x ≤ 5.5): Free body, which can be used in
finding the shear force and bending moment for the portion BC is depicted in
Figure 2.45 Taking vertical equilibrium of the free body shown, we have

+↑ ∑ Fy = 0 ⇒ 13.32 − 2.943 × x + V(x) = 0

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⇒ V( x) = (−10.377 + 2.4525x) kN

and so,

VB = −6.698 and VC = 3.116

Taking moment about the sectioned point X, we get

Z x
∑ MX = 0
⟲

+ ⇒ M(x) + 2.943 × x − 13.32 × (x − 1.5) + 2.4525(x − x′ )dx′ = 0

0

⇒ M(x) = (−1.2263x2 + 10.377x − 19.98) kN-m

Thus, MB = −7.1736 kN-m and MC = 0

Step4: Bending moment and shear force diagrams.

(a) Point of zero shear force: Setting V ( x )= 0 in the expression for V ( x ) ob-
tained above, we have

⇒ = −10.377 + 2.4525x = 0 ⇒ x = 4.231m

(b) Maximum bending moment occurs when shear force crosses zero be-
cause of the relationship we have between shear force and bending mo-
ment. Further, we may note that the shear force diagram is a plot of
slopes ofBMD. Therefore,

Maximum M(x) = M = 1.974 kN-m

x=4.231

Step5: Checks and verifications.

Veri f y → M =0
x=5.50

M = −1.25 × (5.5)2 + 10.578 × −20.322 = 0

x=5.50

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Figure 2.52: Shear-force diagram and Bending-moment diagram of Overhang-

ing beam ABC

The free body diagram of the beam, SFD and BMD are depicted in Figure
2.52.

2.2.5 Frames

Frames are structures with components having internal forces due to axial and
transverse external loads. Typically, the internal forces are axial and shear force
resultants along with bending moment resultant. An example of a frame ele-
ment is given in Figure 2.53. For all the members of a frame, it is possible
to draw axial-force, shear-force and bending-moment diagrams since all these
internal forces are possible in this type of structural systems.

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W a W W M
C X D C
H
P/2 P/2 X
a V
B B
P/2 P/2

Rx A
A E
Ry

Figure 2.53: Example of a frame El- Figure 2.54: Example of frame

ement structures

Beams and axial members are members of a frame structure. Some ex-
amples of frame structure are provided in Figure 2.54. The procedure for
solving frames is illustrated in the following example. Example 2.7 A simply
supported frame ABCDE is loaded as shown in Figure 2.55. Calculate all the
internal forces in the members of the frame and draw their force diagrams.

W L W
W W
P/2
P/2 C D
C D
h/2
h/2

P/2 B P/2 B
h
h
h/2

h/2

A E
HA A E
L VA VB

Figure 2.56: Free-body diagram of

Figure 2.55: Frame ABCDE the frame

Solution: Any section on these frame members will reveal three in-
ternal force resultants, namely, axial and shear forces, and bending moment
about the normal to the plane of the paper. One can draw the distribution of
each of the internal forces in the members ABC, CD and DE resulting in the
axial-force, shear-force and bending-moment diagrams.
Steps involved:
1. Idealize the frame, fix the axes and draw free-body diagram of the entire
frame.

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2. Calculate the support reactions at A and E.

3. Draw the free-body diagram of each member of the frame and calculate
reactions at the fixed pins C and D.

4. Find the internal forces in each of the members.

5. Draw the axial-force, shear-force and bending-moment diagrams.

6. . Verify the results by some checks.

Step1: Idealization of the frame. Fix the axes and draw free-body diagram
of the entire frame. The free-body diagram of the entire frame is as shown in
Figure 2.56.
Step2: Calculation of support reactions. To calculate the reaction at the
roller E, take the moments about the point A.

P h P 3Ph
∑ MA = 0
⟲

+ ⇒ −WL − × − × h + REy × L = 0 ⇒ REy = W +

2 2 2 4L

Considering vertical equilibrium of the entire frame

3Ph 3Ph
+↑ ∑ Fy = 0 ⇒ RAy + W +
4L
−W−W = 0 ⇒ RAy = W −
4L

To calculate the horizontal reaction at the hinge A, take the horizontal equilib-
rium of the entire frame.

+ P P
−→ ∑ Fx = 0 ⇒ RA x +
2
+ =0
2
⇒ RA x = −P

Step3: Drawing of free-body of the each member of the frame.

Figure 2.57: Free-body diagram of individual frame members.

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The free-body diagram of the member ABC is shown in Figure 2.57 (a).
Assuming all the unknown forces acting in the positive direction, to calculate
the bending moment at C, take moments about C. Then,

P h 3Ph
∑ MC = 0 ⇒ MC +
2
× −P×h = 0
2
⇒ MC =
4

The axial force acting at the point C is calculated by taking the force equilib-
rium along the direction x, and so

+ 3Ph
−→ ∑ Fx = 0 ⇒ VC + W −
4L
=0 ⇒ VC = frac3Ph4L − W

The force acting perpendicular to the member ABC and at the point C is calcu-
lated by considering equilibrium in the direction perpendicular to the member
ABC.

P P
HC + P − − =0 ⇒ HC = 0
2 2

The free-body diagram of the horizontal member CD is given in Figure 2.57(b).

For equilibrium of the fixed pin C, the reactions at C in the member CD are the
same as those at C in the member ABC in magnitude but opposite in direction
as shown. To calculate axial force at D, it is necessary that

HC + HD = 0 ⇒ HD = 0

To calculate vertical reaction at D, take vertical equilibrium of the member CD,

to get

3Ph 3Ph
W− − W − W + VD = 0 ⇒ VD = W +
4l 4L

To calculate the bending moment at D, take moment equilibrium about the

point C. Then,

3Ph 3Ph
MD + ( W + )×L−W×L− =0 ⇒ MD = 0
4L 4

Similarly, for the member DE, there is only axial force acting in that member
and that axial force is equivalent to the vertical force at D for the member CD
as seen in Figure 2.57(c)
Step4: Calculation of internal forces in the members.

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Figure 2.58: Free-body of portions AX1 and AX2

Member ABC
Take the section at a point X1 with a distance x from the support A(0 < x ≤
h
2 ) as shown in Figure 2.58. Fix the direction of x along the frame member
ABC starting at Aand moving towards C. The axial force at that section under
consideration is
3Ph 3Ph
A(x) + W − =0 ⇒ A(x) = ( − W)
4L 4L
The shear force is calculated using the equilibrium in the direction perpendic-
ular to x. Hence,

V(x) + P = 0 ⇒ V(x) = −P

The bending moment can be calculated by taking moments about that section
at X1 . So,

M(x) − P × x = 0 ⇒ M(x) = −Px

For the other half of the member ABC, ( 2h < x ≤ h), considering a section at
X2 , the axial force is given by

3Ph
A(x) = ( − W)
4L
The shear force is obtained from the following equation:

P P
V(x) + P − =0 ⇒ V(x) = −
2 2

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The bending moment is obtained as

P h Px Ph
M(x) − P × x − × (x − ) = 0 ⇒ M(x) = +
2 2 2 4

Ph 3Ph
M = MB = , M = MC =
x= h2 2 x=h 4

Member CD

Figure 2.59: Free-body diagram of Figure 2.60: Free-body diagram of

horizontal portion CX3 DX4

Take a section X3 at a distance of x from the fixed pin C along the length of
the member CD, as shown in Figure 2.59. Then, the axial force at that section
is,

A(x) + 0 = 0 ⇒ A(x) = 0

The shear force at X3 is given by,

3Ph 3Ph
V(x) + W − −W = 0 ⇒ V(x) =
4L 4L
The bending moment at the section X3 is given by

3Ph 3Ph 3Ph x

M(x) − + (W − )x − Wx = 0 ⇒ M(x) = (1 −
4L 4L 4 L

3Ph
M = MC = , M = MD = 0
x=0 4 x=L

Member DE

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Take the section X4 between D and E, with x as the distance from D to

the section moving along the member DE, as shown in Figure 2.60. From the
free-body diagram of the member DE, we have at the section,

3Ph
Axial f orce A(x) = −(W + )
4L
Shear f orce V(x) = 0
Bendingmoment M(x) = 0

Figure 2.61: Axial-force, Shear-force and Bending-moment diagrams of the

frame

The axial-force, shear-force and bending-moment diagrams of the frame

are as shown in Figure 2.61.

[Link] Shafts

In this section, we will study the members that primarily take torsional mo-
ments. A typical example is that of shafts which are structural components
attached to motors to transmit torque to a load system. Other applications
range from springs to corner beams of a building frame.

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T₁ T₂ a T₃
T₄
X
A B
l₁ C D E
l₂ l₃
x a l₄
L
T₁ T₂ Tₓ
Tₓ
A B X
x

Figure 2.62

Such structural components are usually prismatic and are subjected

to torque producing forces at different locations as shown in Figure 2.62. The
internal force resultant produced due to these external torques is a tensional
moment as shown on the sectioned face in Figure 2.62(a). There are two ways
to represent torque – one by a curved arrow (anti-clockwise positive and clock-
wise negative) as in Figure 2.62(a) and the other by a double-headed arrow as
shown in Figure 2.62(b).
The loads in these structures can easily be solved for internal torque by
applying tensional moment equilibrium on free body obtained by sectioning
at a given point x from one end of the shaft as depicted in Figure 2.62(a). Thus,

∑ Mx = 0 ⇒ T1 − T2 + Tx = 0 ⇒ Tx = T2 − T1 (2.16)

The following example illustrates the method of solving such shaft problems.
Example 2.8 A shaft of length L and diameter d is fixed at one end and.
There are four circular discs arranged along the length of the shaft. Torques of
different magnitudes is applied by means of these circular discs. Calculate the
internal force acting in the shaft (see Figure 2.62).
Solution In shafts, the only internal force that is acting is torque.
To calculate the torque in the present shaft, take the free body of the shaft at a
section and take moments about that section.

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Figure 2.63: Skeletal free-body diagram of the entire shaft ABCDE

Steps involved:

(a) Calculation of support reactions.

(b) The free body of the entire shaft is as shown in Figure 2.63. The support
reaction at E is also a torque, which is the resultant of all the external
torques. To calculate this support reaction, take moments about the point
E. Then,

∑ ME = 0 ⇒ T1 − T2 − T3 + T4 + T = 0

⇒ T = −T1 + T2 + T3 − T4

(c) Calculation of internal force

Figure 2.64: Free-body diagram of por- Figure 2.65: Free-body diagram of

tion AX1 ABX2

To calculate internal torque in the portion AB (0 ≤ x ≤ l1 ), take the section

between A and B as shown in Figure 2.64, and then take moments about that
section.

∑M = 0 ⇒ T1 + Tx = 0 ⇒ Tx = −T1

For portion BC (l1 ≤ x ≤ l2 ), using Figure 2.65,

∑M = 0 ⇒ Tx = −T1 + T2

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For portion CD (l2 ≤ x ≤ l3 ), using Fig. E2.8.4,

∑M = 0 ⇒ Tx = −T1 + T2 + T3

For portion DE (l3 ≤ x ≤ l4 ), using Fig. E2.8.5,

∑M = 0 ⇒ Tx = −T1 + T2 + T3 + T4

[Link] Mechanical levers

Mechanical levers are a class of structures with members that have adjustable
fulcrums. The adjustable fulcrums give the user a choice in the location of the
support reaction. The forces in the members need not be oriented along or
perpendicular to the members, as required in trusses or beams. Further, the
members of the mechanical levers need not have a particular geometry. They
could be cast members, whose shape is chosen to suit convenience of opera-
tion (such as hand grip, etc.). Application of forces at specific locations is of
great importance to these structures for design purposes. The operation of a
mechanical lever is well understood by the analysis of a typical lever, which is
illustrated in the following example.
Example 2.9 Two 300 N forces are applied to the handles at C and B of the
pliers as shown in Figure 2.66, to hold a rod at D. Determine (a) the magnitude
of the forces exerted on the rod and (b) the forces exerted by the pin at A on
the portion DAB of the pliers.

300 N
30°

C D

B A
0.25 m 0.03 m
300 N
Figure 2.66: Adjustable pliers holding a rod

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300 N y
Ay
3m P A D
x 0.0
C

60

θ
D Ax
B A
Ax
A
Ay
0.25 m 300 N

Figure 2.67: Free body of portions DAB and DAC

Solution Pliers are simple collapsible machines which help in magnify-

ing the applied loads. We notice that at the point D, a simple reaction oriented
perpendicular to the jaw of the plier is necessary. The point A is a pin, which
requires two support reactions Ax and Ay as shown in Figure 2.67. For equi-
librium of portion CAD, we have

∑ MA = 0
⟲

+ ⇒ 0.25 × 300 − 0.03 × P = 0 (a)

Therefore, the magnitude of the forces exerted on the rod at D is P = 2500 N

∑ Fx = 0 ⇒ 2500 × cos 60◦ − Ax = 0 ⇒ Ax = 1250N ← (b)

∑ Fy = 0 ⇒ Ay − 2500 × sin 60◦ = 0 ⇒ Ay = 2465.0635N ↑ (c)

Therefore,
A = [−1250 i + 2465 j] N
◦ ′ ′′
` = 60 6 40 and |A| = 2763.881 N
It is evident from Figure 2.67 that the force components exerted by the pin
at A on the portion DAB of the pliers are equal in magnitude but opposite
in direction to those at A on the portion DAC. Further, we find that we get a
mechanical advantage (= maximum force transmitted / force applied) of about
9 using this simple device.

[Link] Cables
Cables are flexible load carrying members that carry transverse load by their
axial tension. They are similar to beams in that they carry loads applied trans-
verse to their length. They are similar to truss members since they resist loads
only by their axial tension. Cables are normally used to carry distributed trans-
verse loads. An application of cable system is the cable-stayed bridges. Cables
are used to carry the deck loads in cable-stayed bridges. Some of the promi-
nent cable-stayed bridges in India are the New Howrah Bridge at Kolkata, and
the foot bridges of Ram Jhula and Lakshman Jhula of Rishikesh.

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Analysis for vertical loads and self-weight of cables

From an engineering perspective, the constraints available in the design of a
cable system are the co-ordinates of the supports between which the cable is to
span, as well as the loads that need to be supported by the cable system. The
design parameters that need to be decided are (a) the profile and length of the
cable and/or (b) the maximum load or tension in the cable. Since a cable is a
flexible member, it will sag and assume a profile that is best suited to carry the
loads in tension. The extent to which the cable sags is a function not only of
the loads that are applied but also on the end tensions that are supplied to the
cable. This phenomenon is evident in our daily experience of fastening ropes
to hang clothes.
In what follows, we will illustrate the relationship between the profile at-
tained by a cable and the tension that is in the cable, for a simple case of a
uniformly distributed vertical load. We will derive the equation for the profile
of the cable in terms of the cable tension and use this information to evaluate
the length of the cable. Analysis for other loading systems such as those for
concentrated loads and those due to self-weight loading on the system is based
on the application of principles similar to the ones followed in mechanics. The
span of the cable is the horizontal length of the cable between the supports.
1. Cables subjected to distributed loads.

y B
A T
D(x,y) T
cable
Q y
C x D θ

P y
dx C
strings T TO x/2 x/2 x
Bridge W=wdx
Deck W=wx
(b) Free-body diagram (c) Free-body diagram
(a) Cable with a bridge deck of a cable segment of portion CD

Figure 2.68: Cable subjected to distributed load

Consider a cable that is hanging between two points A and B as shown in

Figure 2.68(a). This cable may be visualized as a cable that is supporting a
bridge deck which is connected to the cable through uniformly spaced strings.
If the spacing between the strings is sufficiently close, we can visualize the
string loading to be a uniformly distributed load of w per unit length of the
span of the cable.
Consider a small segment of length dx of the span length at a distance
x from one end. We will take a section of this cable and draw a free-body
diagram as shown in Figure 2.68(b). Since the cable can support only axial

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loads, the tension in the cable section at the two ends P and Q will be along the
tangent to the cable as shown in the figure. We will now shift the section PQ
along the span in such a way that the point P will correspond to the bottom
most point C in the cable as illustrated in Figure 2.68(c). This will ensure that
the tension at the point C will be horizontal as the tangent to the cable at this
point is horizontal.
We next consider the equilibrium of the section CD shown in Figure 2.68(c).
We denote θ as the angle made by the tangent at the point D with horizontal.
The vertical equilibrium of the forces demands that

wx = T sin θ (2.17)
The horizontal force equilibrium requires that

T0 = T cos θ (2.18)

From Eqs. (2.17) and (2.18), we get

wx
q
tan θ = , T= T02 + (wx )2 (2.19)
T0

We now consider the moment equilibrium equation for the section

CD. Taking moments about the point D, we get
x
wx − T0 y = 0
2
From which, we obtain
wx2
y = (2.20)
2T0
Equation (2.20) indicates that the profile of a cable subjected to a uni-
formly distributed load (along its span) will be a parabola with its vertex at the
origin C of the coordinates as shown in Figure 2.68(a). One can easily see that
the parabola will be symmetric about the y-axis if the supports are at the same
level.
Once the equation of the parabola is known, it is very easy to compute
the length of the cable. The length of the curve from the point C (origin) to the
point of attachment B is given by
s
Z xB  2
dy
sB = 1 + dx (2.21)
0 dx

Substituting for y from Eq. (2.20) in Eq. (2.21), we get

" #
w2 x2B w4 x4B
sB = xB 1 + − + ... (2.22)
6T20 40T40

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Further substituting the relation between yB and xB from Eq. (2.20), we obtain

"  2  4 #
2 yB 2 yB
sB = xB 1 + − + ... (2.23)
3 xB 5 xB

Equation (2.23) gives us a simple formula to calculate the length of the cable
provided we kNow the maximum sag yB in the cable. However, the sag is nor-
mally determined by geometric constraints from the deck as well as from the
allowable tension T0 in the cable. We must remember that T0 represents the
minimum tension in the cable. The maximum tension is obtained by substitut-
ing the coordinates of point B in the Eq. (??).
In the present discussion, we have outlined some simple calculations
that can be done in a cable design purely based on force and moment equi-
librium of the cable. In practice, the deflections of the cable itself have to be
calculated accurately and incorporated in the analysis. It is normally ensured
that the deflections are small enough such that the change in length of the
cable due to the cable deformation is negligible in comparison to the overall
length of the cable. If this cannot be ensured due to some physical constraints
on the material, the problem will become nonlinear, and this would demand
an iterative procedure for the solution of the tension in the cable.
The following example illustrates solving cable structures with con-
centrated or discrete loads.
Example 2.10 Two blocks of weight 10 kN and 20 kN are hanging at points
B and C, respectively of an inextensible cable of negligible self-weight as
shown in Figure 2.69. Find the tension in various parts of the cable. Also
find the reactions at the support points A and D.

A
D
3.5 m

1m

B C
10 N 20 N
2m 5m 3m

Figure 2.69: Cable ABCD with concentrated loads

Solution : Here, the cable supports discrete loads.

Some observations that will help in solving the problem are now presented

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Figure 2.70: Free-body diagram of cable ABCD

1. The portions AB, BC and CD are portions of constant internal tension.

2. The unknowns in this problem are therefore the internal forces in por-
tions AB, BC and CD (namely F AB , FBC and FCD ) and the height h be-
tween the points C and D as indicated in Figure 2.70.
3. The reaction R A at A is equal to the tension in cable portion AB along
the direction BA and the reaction RD at D is equal in magnitude to the
tension in the portion CD along the direction CD as shown in Figure 2.70.

Figure 2.71: Free-body diagram of the cable indicating the components of re-
action at A and D

4. Free bodies obtained by considering the forces around the junctions B

and C can be used to generate equations of equilibrium to solve for un-
known forces. This is in addition to obtaining equilibrium for the entire
cable, using the free body of ABCD, which is obtained after separating
the supports at A and D and by resolving the support reactions into their
respective horizontal and vertical components (Figure 2.71).

From the force equilibrium of free body ABCD shown in Figure 2.71,
we get

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Vertical equilibrium

+↑ ∑ Fy = 0 ⇒ VA + VD − 10 − 20 = 0 ⇒ VA + VD = 30 N (a)
Horizontal equilibrium

+→ ∑ Fx = 0 ⇒ HA + HD = 0 (b)

Moment equilibrium Taking moments about end A, we have

∑M = 0
⟲

+ ⇒ HD × 1 − 10 × 2 − 20 × 7 + VD × 10 = 0

⇒ HD + 10VD = 160 (c)

Figure 2.72: free-body diagram of portion ABX of the cable

Equations (a), (b) and (c) involve unknowns, H A , HD , V A and VD . Since

the resultant of H A and V A is known to be along BA, we have, using equilib-
rium at the support A, (see Figure 2.72) and applying the force equilibrium
along the x and y directions, the relations

+→ ∑ Fx = 0 ⇒ FAB cos ` + HA = 0

+↑ ∑ Fy = 0 ⇒ −FAB sin ` + VA = 0 (d)

Eliminating F AB from the above two equations, we get

VA + H A tan θ = 0
3.5
where tan θ = 2 = 1.75. Therefore,
VA + 1.75HA = 0 (e)

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Inserting this relation into Eqs. (a) or (c) and eliminating H A , we obtain

VD = 16.7568 N

Using Eqs. (a) − (d) again, we get

VA = 13.2432 N, HA = −7.5676 N and HD = 7.5676 N

Having obtained HD and VD , it is now possible to find the orientation of the

resultant reaction at D. The angle θ ′, which represents the orientation of the
cable at D, can be obtained from applying the force equilibrium equations for
the free-body at D as shown in Figure 2.72

−FCD cos `′ + HD = 0 and −FCD sin `′ + VD = 0 (f)

Eliminating FCD from the above two equations, we obtain

HD tan `′ = VD (g)

But from geometry, tan θ ′ = h/3. Therefore, Eq. (g) becomes

H
( ) H D − VD = 0 (h)
3
Inserting the values for HD and VD , we have

h = 6.6428

Thus, tan θ ′ = h/3 = 2.2143 or θ ′ = 65◦ 41′ 43′′

From Eq. (f) we obtain

FCD = 18.3864 N

The only unknown left to be evaluated is the internal tension in the cable por-
tion BC. The equilibrium equations for a free body ABX shown in Figure 2.72
can be used to find FBC . Thus,

+→ ∑ Fx = 0 ⇒ −8.484c + FBCx = 0 ⇒ FBCx = 8.484 N

+↑ ∑ Fy = 0 ⇒ 14.848 − 10 + FBCy = 0 ⇒ +FBCy = −4.848 N

q
There f ore, ⇒ FBC = F2BCx + F2BCy ⇒ FBC = 9.772 N

Verification: From geometry of BC, we

(h − 2.5)
tan `′′ = = 0.571 (i)
5

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From the direction of FBC ,

FBCy 4.848
= = 0.571 (j)
FBCx 8.484

Since the orientation of the portion BC as indicated in Eq. (i) coincides

with the forces along the portion BC, it confirms our assumptions that forces
in a cable are oriented along the geometry of the cable.

2.3 Summary

In this chapter, we have described methods of using equations of equilib-

rium to compute internal force resultants in different types of structural sys-
tems. Classification of the structural systems based on internal force resul-
tants is done to identify different standard procedures for solving for the in-
ternal forces in different types of structural systems. Typically, axial members,
trusses, beams, frames, machines, shafts and cables were the structural sys-
tems considered. Suitable methods of analysis have been described for each of
these structural systems. The concepts of free-body diagrams and degrees of
freedom were used abundantly for the procedures adopted for solving these
structural systems. All the analysis procedures described in this chapter deal
with solving the equilibrium equations directly. In Chapter 3, methods of anal-
ysis using energy concepts such as Castigliano’s theorems and virtual work
methods are introduced.

EXERCISE PROBLEMS

2.1 A column 4 m in length with varying cross-section as shown in Figure

P2.1 has a cross-section of dimensions 25 cm × 25 cm at the top and 50 cm
× 50 cm at the bottom. The column is made of concrete whose specific
weight is 25 kN/m3 . Find the magnitude of the internal axial force in the
column. Draw the axial force diagram to represent the magnitude of the
force.

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20
°
A G
a a 40°
10 a F
° a
25cm x 25cm E
a a
a a a
50cm x 50cm B
a a
C
P D

Figure P2.1 Figure P2.2

2.2 A truss is made of equilateral triangles of sides a and it is loaded and

supported as shown in Figure P2.2. Determine the forces in each member
using the method of joints.

2.3 A bridge truss with six equal panels is as depicted in Figure P2.3. De-
termine the forces in members DE, EF, FG and FH of the truss using the
method of sections.
z
C

D F
B
D G 4m
2.5 m 2.5 m

B I E
A K x A y
C E F H J
6m 4m
10 kN 20 kN 50 kN 20 kN F
6 panels @ 3m=18 m

Figure P2.3 Figure P2.4

2.4 A space truss with a ball-and-socket joint at C and rollers at A, F and E

is as shown in Figure P2.4. After calculating the support reactions, find
the internal forces in the members of the truss under the action of force
F given by

F = (10i − 6j − 12k)kN.

2.5 Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the beam loaded
and supported as shown in Figure P2.5.

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EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS ■ 109

4 kN
2 kN/m 2 kN/m
5 kN 5 kN
B C D E
A A B C
2.5 m
2m 2m
5m
6m 2m

Figure P2.5 Figure P2.6

2.6 Calculate the support reactions and draw shear force and bending mo-
ment diagrams for the cantilever beam loaded as depicted in Figure P2.6.

2.7 Calculate internal forces in all the members of the frame given in Figure
P2.7.

10 kN
1.5 m 0.5 m
C
B D
40 kN-m
2m

3m

A 10 kN-m 20 kN-m
B
A Tc C D
E
4.5 m
3m 2m

Figure P2.7 Figure P2.8

2.8 A circular shaft as illustrated in Figure P2.8 is in equilibrium under ap-

plied torques. Find out the torque acting on pulley C.

2.9 A fishing rod cable is passing through two pulleys A and C. The mass
per unit length of cable is 4 N/m and a fish is hanging at the end A as
shown in Figure P2.9. Length rod between pulleys is 2 m and sagging
of cable at the middle of fishing rod is 0.2 m. Neglect weight of hook
and cable from A to hook. When cable is in stable position, find (a) the
weight of fish, (b) the total length of cable from A to C, and (c) the slope
of cable at A.

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2000 mm
A C

20 mm
Figure P2.9

2.10 Calculate the force at the arm connection B in the earth-mover shown in
Figure P2.10. The weight of the arm AB is 5 kN and arm CD weighs 8
kN. B is at the same elevation as E.

C 4m
F
E 1.5 m
B 8 kN
3m
G
D
35°

A
40
1m

2m

Figure P2.10

2.11 A uniform cable weighing w N/m of its length is suspended between

two points A and B as shown in Figure P2.11. It should be noted that this
is not the same case as uniformly distributed load along the horizontal
length. If s is the length of the cable from the sag point S to a point located
at (x,y) of the cable (see FigureP2.11), derive the following relations:

s = c sinh x/c, y=c cosh (x/c) and y2 – s2 = c2 ,

Which describe the shape of the curve formed by the cable due to its
self-weight. The above equations are the equations of a centenary curve.
[Hint: Use the free-body diagram of the cable lengths. Notice that the
tension in the cable at the sag point S is horizontal].

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EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS ■ 111

y
A

(x,y)
B s
S

c
O x

Figure P2.11

2.12 The Ansaldo SVA aircraft first constructed in 1917 used Warren truss
style struts for joining its two wings as shown in Figure-P2.12 (a). War-
ren truss is an engineering truss joined with members of equal length.
In the Warren truss shown in Figure -P2.12(b), find the forces in all the
members and also the reactions at A and B.

100 N 300 N
4

2 6
3 5
A B
1 4
400 N 7x3m

Figure P2.12(a): Warren Truss like Figure P2.12(b): Solve the above
struts in Ansaldo SVA warren truss

2.13 Metal foams are cellular structures consisting of a solid metal with gas
filled pores comprising of a large portion of volume (See Figure P2.13
(a)). Metallic foams are known to have greater energy absorption capac-
ity per unit mass of metal when compared with the base metal. They are
hence used for stiffening a structure without considerably increasing its
mass.

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112 ■ Ignition Sources: Fire, Explosion and Detonation

Figure P2.13(a): Metal Foam

Figure-2.13(b) shows a two-dimensional simplified cell of a metal foam

structure. Each cell of the foam is considered as a regular hexagon and
only one cell is analyzed here as shown in the figure. This cell may be
idealized as a truss structure for the analysis here. The reactions due
to surrounding cells act towards the center of this hexagonal cell. If the
force transmitted by the cell that is exactly on the top of the cell that is
being analyzed is P = 100N, find the forces in all the cell walls (1, 2, 3, 4,
5,6 ) and the reactions at all the vertices.

Figure P2.13(b): Idealized two-dimensional two-cell structure

2.14 A giant wheel (see Figure-P2.14) with five carriages is at rest as shown
in the figure. The link AO is damaged and is sent for replacement. A
temporary link is used to join C and F to keep the giant wheel at rest
while the passengers are boarding.
Determine if the giant wheel truss structure is stable and statically deter-
minate when the link AO is missing as shown
Find the forces in link AE and ED if the weight of each carriage is 100kg.
The length of each radial link is 10m and ABCDE forms a regular pen-
tagon. Take g = 10m/s2 , ∠ DCF = 150o

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EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS ■ 113

100 Kg
E B

100 Kg O 100 Kg

D C

G 100 Kg 100 Kg F

Figure P2.14: Giant wheel with 5 carriages

2.15 A coconut tree has 10 coconuts at the top, each weighing 1.4kg. The tree
is 12m tall. Density of the coconut trunk is 400kg/m3 and the radius
of the coconut tree trunk is 20cm. The trunk is assumed to be a solid
cylinder. A man of 60kg weight is sitting at 7m from ground with an
offset of 0.3 m as shown in Figure-P2.15. Draw the axial force diagram
for the tree.

Figure P2.15: Man Climbing a coconut tree

2.16 A simple truss is shown in Figure-P2.16. Find the force in member PQ,PS?

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114 ■ Ignition Sources: Fire, Explosion and Detonation

15 m
10 kN 7.5 m
Q R

P S
25 m

Figure P2.16: A simple truss

2.17 For the given cantilever beam (see Figure-P2.17) with uniformly varying
load ‘w’ and applied moment ‘m’ at distances as shown, draw the Shear
Force Diagram and Bending Moment Diagram.

W=10 N/m

5 N-m

6m 4m
12 m

Figure P2.17: A cantilever beam

2.18 The frame has 4 members which are joined with pin joints as shown in
Figure-P2.18. Draw the Axial Force Diagram, Shear Force Diagram and
Bending Moment Diagram of the frame. Also, find the support reactions
at P and Q.

0.5 m 0.3 m 0.6 m

P
0.3 m

3 kN
Q
0.1 m

10 kN

Figure P2.18: Frame with pin joints

2.19 A diving board is an L shaped frame as shown in Figure-P2.19. A man of

mass ‘m’ is standing at a distance ‘b’ from the free end as shown. Draw

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the Axial Force diagram, Shear Force Diagram and Bending Moment Di-
agram.

Figure P2.19: L shaped diving board

2.20 A nut cracker has 20 cm long limbs as shown in Figure-P2.20. 200N force
is applied at both ends perpendicular to the surface. Find

a) Support reaction at A
b) Mechanical advantage

16 cm
200 N
4 cm
7°

200 N

Figure P2.20:A nut cracker

2.21 A cable of negligible self-weight is supported between two fixed ends A

and B at same elevation and span length of ‘l’. A curtain of triangular
shape hangs from the cable which results in a uniformly varying load on
the cable as shown in Figure-P2.21. Find the profile of the cable under
this load.

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116 ■ Ignition Sources: Fire, Explosion and Detonation

A B

Figure P2.21: A cable fixed at both the ends

2.22 Rope cars are used for transport in hilly regions. Each rope car weighs
‘P’ N. A cable of length 5.2 meters is connected between ends A and B as
shown in Figure-P2.22. The horizontal and vertical distance between the
ends is 3 meters and 4 meters respectively as shown. The rope cars are
at a horizontal distance of 0.5 meters and 2 meters from the end A. If the
weight of the rope is 102N, determine the profile of each section of the
rope.

A
4m

0.5 m
2m

3m

Figure P2.22:A cable with rope cars

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