MODULE THREE – INVESTIGATING ISSUES IN THE CARIBBEAN

OBJECTIVE ONE – THE NATURE AND PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

WHAT IS RESEARCH?

Research is the systematic collection and analysis of information (data) in order to validate a theory or
recommend a solution to a problem. There are three major forms of knowledge that research can take –
tradition, experience and scientific.

FORMS OF KNOWLEDGE – TRADITION, EXPERIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC

1. TRADITION – this occurs when information is passed down from generation to generation. This
form of knowledge is based on community and often oral tradition e.g. a child learns recipes
from his mother; learning dialect and conversation styles from the family.

2. EXPERIENCE – this is also known as the ‘trial and error’ approach to learning. Often, humans
learn through experience and self-experimentation. Albert Bandura (1977) examined this in his
social learning theory, where he demonstrated that people not only learn from their own
personal experiences but vicariously from the experiences of others

3. SCIENTIFIC – scientific knowledge is acquired through the experiments and reports of scientists,
often based on rigorous and accurate reporting. Scientific research follows specific rules in its
purpose, implementation and presentation. The best reports should be detailed enough to allow
duplication to verify and validate the results. This is the basis on which medicines are declared
safe for consumption.

SYSTEMATIC ENQUIRY

This is any form of methodical investigation, often using scientific methods. It tends to be associated
with quantitative or numerical / statistical approaches. It involves a highly scientific, step-by-step
research process adhering to scientific principles in data collection and analysis so as to largely prevent
bias or any data errors. As the name implies, any rigorous systematic enquiry is concerned with
conducting research in a step-by-step, methodical way, while documenting at every stage, in order to
ensure the validity and accuracy of findings.

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GENERATION OF NEW KNOWLEDGE

When the topic under consideration has not been researched before, it may be difficult to get new
information as there is no existing data to compare findings. As such, new data or primary data must be
collected first hand by the researcher. This must be presented in a systematic way to ensure the validity
of the work.

There are various ways to obtain primary data:

1. Observation – this method focusses on gathering data while the subjects of interest are in their
natural environment. The advantage of this method is that the subjects are unlikely to be
influenced by the investigation

2. Experiments – this method is more direct than observation because the subject will participate
in an experiment designed to determine the effectiveness of a treatment

3. Surveys – this technique of collecting data involves directly asking the subject a series of
questions. The questionnaire needs to be carefully designed to avoid any bias or confusion for
those participating. Concerns also exist about the influence the survey will have on the
participant’s response.

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY IN RESEARCH

These are key components to any research. Lack of reliability or degree of validity can make your
research and its conclusions virtually useless. Reliability simply asks whether your instrument produces
the same results every time. Your instrument is the means by which you are going to measure your
variables. It does not have to be a literal instrument but can be a data collection instrument –
questionnaire or interview schedule. The degree of validity refers to how strong and accurate the
conclusions and inferences that you make are, in relation to your research. It also reflects how well the
research can be repeated, especially in terms of the duplication of results.

PROBLEM SOLVING

The primary goal of any accurate study should be to solve the problem being investigated. The report
itself must clearly identify the problem that will be solved and should clearly outline the steps that will
be taken while attempting to solve the problem. The study is made even more valid when primary
findings are compared with secondary sources.

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OBJECTIVE TWO – THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
IDENTIFICATION OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM

Good research should always begin with a question or with identifying the problem to be investigated.

A problem statement can be implied or can be presented as an actual problem. It usually includes the
method by which the problem is to be answered.

WRITING A RESEARCH QUESTION, A PROBLEM STATEMENT OR A HYPOTHESIS

When coming up with a problem statement, you should note the following:

1. Your problem statement must NOT be stated in the form of a question

2. Your goal should never just be to know more about the subject
3. The problem statement must never yield a simple YES or NO answer
4. The problem statement should not be structured so that a simple calculation can solve it
5. The problem statement should never just describe a factor as interesting or unique
6. Stay away from trying to measure the “EXTENT” of a phenomenon or an event as this often
cannot be accurately measured
7. An ideal research problem should examine the relationship between the variables under
investigation, or at least should establish a cause and effect relationship

EXAMPLE – an investigation into the causes and effects of smoking on the students of San Fernando
High School

A hypothesis is a possible answer to the problem under investigation. It can take a negative or positive
position on the issue.

EXAMPLE – the students of San Fernando High School smoke due to peer pressure and the availability of
cigarettes near to the school

Variables are elements, features or factors within an experiment that are subject to change, especially
one that is allowed to change to test a hypothesis. It is very important to precisely define variables as
this will have an impact on the data collection instrument and on the analysis. There may be more than
one variable in the study. Ideally, you should examine the relationship between the variables. Variables
must be clearly defined to produce accurate results and to make the topic researchable.

EXAMPLE – Students, San Fernando High School, Smoking

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OBJECTIVE THREE – RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
These are clear, relevant sub-questions linked to the research problem and the sources. The research
objectives should ideally break down the problem statement into a series of questions to examine all of
the possible variables. They should be relevant to the research problem and should take into account
what the secondary sources have indicated as possible solutions to the problem. Three to four research
objectives are recommended. Each should be completely researchable on its own and each must be
answered clearly in the each of the following sections:

1. Literature review
2. Data collection instrument
3. Presentation of data
4. Interpretation of data
5. Conclusion

EXAMPLE – (PROBLEM STATEMENT) – To examine the relationship between online gaming and the
academic performance of students in San Fernando High School

(RESEARCH OBJECTIVES)

1. What factors encourage teenagers to become involved in online gaming?

2. How can online gaming improve the academic performance of teenagers?
3. How can online gaming hinder the academic performance of teenagers?
4. What strategies can be implemented to incorporate online gaming into the secondary school
learning experience?

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

1. RELEVANCE - the sources used in the literature review must be similar to your topic but should
not be identical. If they are identical, then this can be regarded as plagiarism. Once properly
cited, however, relevance sources can add a lot of value to the work by providing data that can
be contrasted with primary findings.
2. DIRECTLY LINKED TO RESEARCH PROBLEM – the research objectives must directly assist in
answering the research problem. They must be answerable on their own and must be of value
to the study
3. INFORMED BY SOURCES – the research objective must be based on secondary research.
Secondary research can help you to formulate a hypothesis or possible answer to the research
problem. The research objectives must be crafted around the hypothesis if they are to
contribute positively to the study
4. CLARITY – research objectives must be clear and simple. They should be relatively easy to
answer as this would assist in answering the research problem. This way, they can be answered
first by secondary sources in the literature review and later by the data collection instrument.

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OBJECTIVE FOUR – SOURCES OF INFORMATION
These are simply the secondary sources that you can obtain data from for your literature review.

1. Existing literature – libraries, museums, specialized libraries etc.

2. Experts / researchers – teachers, public figures, university lecturers – all can be interviewed
3. Newspaper reports – not only current editions but archived reports
4. Archives – original documents such as government papers, Hansard, Gazette etc.
5. Minutes of meetings – records of important policies and decisions
6. Oral histories – families and friends; older members of the community
7. Internet sources – these need to be critically evaluated

CRITERIA FOR SELECTION AND USE OF SOURCES IN THE LITERATURE REVIEW

The secondary material used in the literature review should be checked for:

1. RELEVANCE – how old is the source? It should be less than 10 years old. Is the source similar to
your study? If it is identical to your study, then this can be plagiarism
2. DEGREE OF VALIDITY - be sure that your source is reputable. Claims made by the source should
be researched and supported with evidence. They should not just be opinions. It should be free
from bias
3. ADEQUACY – the source should help you to answer the research problem. It should examine
contemporary developments in the field.

OBJECTIVE FIVE – METHODS OF ENQUIRY

SURVEYS

This is a broad investigation of a problem. A questionnaire is a list of items or questions that are used to
find out and record responses. Most questionnaires have three parts:

1. INTRODUCTION / COVER LETTER - states the purpose of the research and gives an assurance of
confidentiality
2. PERSONAL INFORMATION / BIO – DATA – basic information pertinent to the study e.g. age, sex,
occupation, race, location etc.
3. QUESTIONS – open and closed ended questions. All of the research objectives must be
answered here. The questionnaire should have approximately 12- 15 questions

Open ended questions invite free responses and gives insight into the topic. It allows for qualitative data
collection.

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Closed ended questions allow for numerical analysis and the mapping of trends. Quantitative data is
collected here.

FOCUS GROUPS

This is a qualitative method of enquiry using primary sources. It is an organized discussion on the topic
under investigation on a group of participants selected for the study based on their knowledge of the
topic. It collects data based on personal experience and opinions. The researcher or moderator has to
guide the discussion without getting involved in it. Sessions are recorded manually or electronically.

INTERVIEWS

This is a qualitative method of enquiry involving a conversation between the researcher and the
selected interview candidate. Oral histories are recorded like this. A list of questions is often given to the
participant in advance to help them prepare. The questions are usually open ended to stimulate
discussion. The interview is recorded both electronically and with personal notes or a transcript.

USE OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY MATERIALS

Primary data is data that the researcher has to collect for his own use and for the purpose of that
particular study. It can be expensive to acquire but the researcher has absolute control over the figures.

Secondary data is data collected by someone else for the purpose of some other research that is
employed or “borrowed” by the researcher for use in this study. The main drawback of using secondary
data is that the researcher has no control over how the data was collected. The advantages of using
secondary data are that it is cheap and sometimes free to acquire and it is often immediately available
and accessible.

Quantitative data uses numerical values to describe a measurement of interest. This method of data
collection makes it easy to tabulate data and notice trends. The problem with this method is that it can
sometimes disregard minority point of view or more subtle points of interest in the data.

Qualitative data uses descriptive terms to classify a measurement of interest. This method is more
difficult to tabulate and present graphically but it takes nuances of the data or opinions into account and
can add a new dimension to the topic under investigation.

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PARTICIPANT AND NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

Observation can be considered as one of the most authentic and direct data collection methods. The
problem is that bias can occur because of the subjectivity of the researcher. Participant observation lets
the researcher participate in the activity being observed and allows natural behaviours to occur. Still,
when the researcher participates, it makes it difficult to record observations. Also, because of
researcher participation, the group tends to feel that the confidentiality of the observation may not be
kept.

Non-participant observation allows the researcher to be detached from the group being observed. Open
or overt observation can be useful in some situation but can become a problem when subjects change
their behaviour toward the desired outcome.

OBJECTIVE SIX – SAMPLING

The reliability of the study is greatly affected by the sample. This is taken because it is rarely possible
and often not feasible to survey the entire population. Samples must be chosen carefully so that they
are representative of the views of the population.

TARGET POPULATION

This is all of the members of the group under investigation. The sample would represent a portion of the
target population.

PROBABILITY AND NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

PROBABILITY SAMPLING

With probability sampling, every member of the population has a chance of being chosen for that
sample. Each member, however, may not have an EQUAL chance of being selected but the use of
chance still remains. This eliminates the possibility of bias in selecting the sample. Some probability
sampling procedures are:

1. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING – ever member of the population has an equal chance of being
chosen. This is often representative of the total population and can be easily analysed and
interpreted. Still, this is not practical with large populations.

2. STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING – the population is divided into groups or strata according to
the appropriate variable (e.g. age, sex, class). The strata should be mutually exclusive. The units
in the strata should be generally homogenous or similar. The strata should have distinct

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 differences from each other. Once the strata are established, a random sample is then
conducted from each stratum. Stratified random sampling gives a better representation of the
population but the problem is to identify the strata into appropriate sizes.

3. CLUSTER SAMPLING – if the population of interest is spread out over a large area, it may be
more prudent to divide the area into sub-divisions or clusters e.g. political boundaries. Once the
clusters have been determined, a simple random sample is then conducted to select the clusters
that will be investigated. All of the members of the selected cluster are tested.

4. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING – this is the selection of the sample based on a predetermined

sequence. The sequence must originate with chance e.g. every 4th person

5. PROPORTIONAL STRATIFIED SAMPLING – in situations where the demographic of an area is

very heterogeneous (mixed), the sample should be taken based on the ratios or proportions of
that group within society e.g. in a community of 10,000 persons, if 7000 are Christian, 1000 are
Hindu and 2000 are Muslim, then the sample should reflect the ration – 7:1:2

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

This is the subjective selection of a sample according to the characteristics of the members. This is also
called purposive sampling. Some types of non-probability sampling are:

1. CONVENIENCE SAMPLING – convenience or accidental sampling selects people who are readily
available to participate in the study. This is based purely on coincidence and not on any
structure. This sampling type is very convenient and inexpensive but it is not a representative
sample. The respondents may lack the desired knowledge about the subject matter under
investigation.

2. QUOTA SAMPLING – this involves non-random sampling within each strata once the general
breakdown of the sample is known

3. PURPOSIVE SAMPLING – this is generally used in qualitative research. Subjects are selected for
their understanding and knowledge of the problem e.g. selection of interview candidates.
Purposive sampling adds credibility because it ensures that the sample is most likely to give data
on the issue being researched. It can be less expensive and time consuming but is less
representative of the population. The results are dependent on the unique characteristics of the
sample.

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OBJECTIVE SEVEN – FORMS OF PRESENTING DATA AND TECHNIQUES FOR
ANALYSING DATA
PRESENTATION OF DATA

The data from your primary data collection (interviews and questionnaire) must be represented here. It
needs to be presented using all of the following formats at least once:

1. Tables
2. Graphs
3. Diagrams
4. Pictures
5. Text – using only words, describe the findings of the interview or open ended questions

ANALYSIS OF DATA

In analysing your data, keep the following ideas in mind:

1. Review your problem statement and research objectives

2. Keep your literature review in mind as this can affect your conclusion. If the findings of your
literature review differ from your primary findings, then you may need to list this under
limitations
3. Look for trends and patterns in the results
4. Try combining the answers to different items to create relationships
5. Check for any contradictory findings as these may suggest the need for more research. this can
be included in the recommendations
6. Assess the relevance of the findings to the issue at hand
7. Keep your introduction, data collection sources and literature review in mind
8. Make sure that your interpretation is always supported by your findings

OBJECTIVE EIGHT – CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

CONCLUSION

Your conclusion must directly answer your problem statement and all of your research objectives in very
clear terms. Be sure to state your main findings to support your views, in relation to your research
objectives. Any areas of contention related to your research objectives must be mentioned here. Do
NOT introduce any new information or findings at this point.

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LIMITATIONS

These are the boundaries that you imposed on your research problem and methods. The choices you
made in sampling and in the methodology could create limitations. Including these would add credibility
to your research.

RECOMMENDATIONS

These are any recommendations to improvements to the study or to the stakeholders based on the
findings. You may recommend further research that needs to be done.

OBJECTIVE NINE – REFERENCING STYLE

The references used in your literature review must be listed in a bibliography at the end of the report.
The three contemporary accepted formats are American Psychological Association (APA), Modern
Language Association (MLA) and the Chicago Manual of Style. For your I.A., you MUST use the APA
format.

The essential difference between the MLA and APA styles of listing sources is the order in which the
information is presented.

MLA – author’s name, title, place of publication, publisher, year and page

APA – author’s name, year, title, place of publication, publisher, page

CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE – author’s name, title, place of publication, publisher, year, page number

OBJECTIVE TEN – PRINCIPLES OF ETHICAL CONDUCT

The researcher is bound by ethical principles, of which confidentiality and trust are the most important
and should not be breeched. There are four major principles that must be adhered to:

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CONSENT OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS

The persons that you are observing or questioning must know that you are doing a research project and
the topic under investigation. Do not exert any undue pressure on respondents. When interviewing
minors, you must have the consent of parents. Respondents also have the right to knowledge of the
results of the study. Consent must be written or implied. Implied consent can be obtained with the
questionnaire through the inclusion of the cover letter stating the intent and purpose of the survey. The
fact that the respondent has participated in the questionnaire implies consent. Direct or written consent
must be obtained when conducting an interview. The respondent must give permission in writing for
you to use the transcripts and electronic recordings of the interview as part of your study and must give
the rights of that information to the researcher.

RESPECT FOR PRIVACY AND CONFIDENTIALITY

Privacy of respondents must be respected. You must have the permission of respondents before this is
collected. You need to assure confidentiality and adhere to this. When the report is written, make every
attempt to disguise the identity of your respondents as this gives your work greater validity.

INTEGRITY AND TRANSPARENCY OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Participants in the research process should be told what you intend to do with the data collected and
the reason for research. There must be honestly with colleagues. Researchers must report their findings
in a complete and honest fashion, without misrepresenting or intentionally misleading others as to the
nature of their findings.

AVOIDANCE OF PLAGIARISM

Copying someone else’s work is plagiarism and is illegal. The use of any work other than your own
should be properly cited in accordance with the accepted format.

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