UNIT-II
SOLID-BASED RAPID PROTOTYPING SYSTEMS
SOLID-BASED RAPID PROTOTYPING SYSTEMS: Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) - models and
specifications, process, working principle, applications, advantages and disadvantages, case studies. Fused
deposition modeling (FDM) - models and specifications, process, working principle, applications, advantages and
disadvantages, case studies.
Solid-based rapid prototyping systems are very different from the liquid-based photo-curing systems. The
basic common feature among these systems is that they all utilize solids (in one form or another) as the
primary medium to create the prototype.
Models and Specifications
LAMINATED OBJECT MANUFACTURING(LOM)
Process
It is an automated fabrication method in which a 3D object is constructed from a solid CAD representation
by sequentially laminating the part cross-sections. The process consists of three phases:1) pre-processing; 2)
building; 3) post-processing
1. Pre-processing
The pre-processing phase comprises several operations. The initial steps include generating an image from a
CAD-derived STL file of the part to be manufactured, sorting input data, and creating secondary data
structures. The LOM system software, which calculates and controls the slicing functions. Orienting and
merging the part on the LOM system are done manually. These tasks are aided by LOM, which provides a
menu-driven interface to perform transformations (e.g., translation, scaling, and mirroring) as well as merges
2. Building
In the building phase, thin layers of adhesive-coated material are sequentially bonded to each other and
individually cut by a CO2 laser beam (see Figure ).
The build cycle has the following steps:
(1) LOM creates a cross-section of the 3D model measuring the exact height of the model and slices the
horizontal plane accordingly. The software then images crosshatches which define
the outer perimeter and convert these excess materials into a support structure.
(2) The computer generates precise calculations, which guide the focused laser beam to cut the cross-
sectional outline, the crosshatches, and the model’s perimeter. The laser beam power is
designed to cut exactly the thickness of one layer of material at a time. After the perimeter is burned,
everything within the model’s boundary is “freed” from the remaining sheet.
(3) The platform with the stack of previously formed layers descends and a new section of material advances.
The platform ascends and the heated roller laminates the material to the stack with a single
reciprocal motion, thereby bonding it to the previous layer.
(4) The vertical encoder measures the height of the stack and relays the new height to LOM, which calculates
the cross section for the next layer as the laser cuts the model’s current layer.
This sequence continues until all the layers are built. The product emerges from the LOM machine as a
completely enclosed rectangular block containing the part.
3. Post-processing
The last phase, post-processing, includes separating the part from its support material and finishing it. The
separation sequence is as follows
(1) The metal platform, home to the newly created part, is removed from the LOM machine. A forklift may
be needed to remove the larger and heavier parts from the LOM.
(2) Normally a hammer and a putty knife are all that is required to separate the LOM block from the
platform. However, a live thin wire may also be used to slice through the double-sided foam tape, which
serves as the connecting point between the LOM stack and the platform.
(3) The surrounding wall frame is lifted off the block to expose the crosshatched pieces of the excess
material. Crosshatched pieces may then be separated from the part using wood carving tools.
After the part is extracted from surrounding crosshatches the wood like LOM part can be finished.
Traditional model-making finishing techniques, such as sanding, polishing, painting, etc. can be applied.
After the part has been separated it is recommended that it be sealed immediately with urethane, epoxy, or
silicon spray to prevent moisture absorption and expansion of the part. If necessary, LOM parts can be
machined — by drilling, milling and turning.
Principle
The LOM process is based on the following principles:
(1) Parts are built, layer-by-layer, by laminating each layer of paper or other sheet-form materials and the
contour of the part on that layer is cut by a CO2 laser.
(2) Each layer of the building process contains the cross-sections of one or many parts. The next layer is then
laminated and built directly on top of the laser-cut layer.
(3) The Z-control is activated by an elevation platform, which lowers when each layer is completed, and the
next layer is then laminated and ready for cutting. The Z-height is then measured for the exact height so that
the corresponding cross sectional data can be calculated for that layer.
(4) No additional support structures are necessary as the “excess” material, which are cross-hatched for later
removal, act as the support.
Advantages of using LOM technology
The main advantages of using LOM technology are as follows
• Only boundaries are to be addressed and not their interiors.
• It employs CO2 laser which is cheaper. No protective environment is required.
• Paper is very cheap.
• It gives strong wood-like parts. Ideal as patterns for casting
(1) Wide variety of materials. In principle, any material in sheet form can be used in the LOM systems.
These include a wide variety of organic and inorganic materials such as paper, plastics, metals, composites
and ceramics. Commercial availability of these materials allows users to vary the type and thickness of
manufacturing materials to meet their functional requirements and specific applications of the prototype.
(2) Fast build time. The laser in the LOM process does not scan the entire surface area of each cross-section,
rather it only outlines its periphery. Therefore, parts with thick sections are produced just as quickly as those
with thin sections, making the LOM process especially advantageous for the production of large and bulky
parts.
(3) High precision. The feature to feature accuracy that can be achieved with LOM machines is usually better
than [Link] design and selection of application specific parameters, higher accuracy levels in the
X–Y and Z dimensions can be achieved. If the layer does shrink horizontally during lamination, there is no
actual distortion as the contours are cut post-lamination, and laser cutting itself does not cause shrinkage.
(4) Support structure. There is no need for additional support structure as the part is supported by its own
material that is outside the periphery of the part built. These are not removed during the LOM process and
therefore automatically act as supports for its delicate or overhang features.
(5) Post-curing. The LOM process does not need to convert expensive, and in some cases toxic, liquid
polymers to solid plastics or plastic powders into sintered objects. Because sheet materials are not subjected
to either physical or chemical phase changes, the finished LOM parts do not experience warpage, internal
residual stress, or other deformations.
Disadvantages of using LOM
(1) Precise power adjustment. The power of the laser used for cutting the perimeter (and the crosshatches) of
the prototype needs to be precisely controlled so that the laser cuts only the current layer of lamination and
not penetrate into the previously cut layers. Poor control of the cutting laser beam may cause distortion to the
entire prototype.
(2) Fabrication of thin walls. The LOM process is not well suited for building parts with delicate thin walls,
especially in the Z-direction. This is because such walls usually are not sufficiently rigid to withstand the
post-processing process when the cross-hatched outer perimeter portion of the block is being removed. The
person performing the post-processing task of separating the thin wall of the part from its support must be
fully aware of where such delicate parts are located in the model and take sufficient precautions so as not to
damage these parts.
(3) Integrity of prototypes. The part built by the LOM process is essentially held together by the heat sealed
adhesives. The integrity of the part is therefore entirely dependent on the adhesive strength of the glue used,
and as such is limited to this strength. Therefore, parts built may not be able to withstand the vigorous
mechanical loading that the functional prototypes may require.
(4) Removal of supports. The most labor-intensive part of the LOM process is its last phase of post-
processing when the part has to be separated from its support material within the rectangular block of
laminated material. This is usually done with wood carving tools and can be tedious and time consuming.
The person working during this phase needs to be careful and aware of the presence of any delicate parts
Limitations
• Grid cutting takes much more time than object cutting.
• Decubing also is time-consuming.
• Horizontal surfaces pose problems. Although it is solvable, it has not been done till date.
within the model so as not to damage it.
Applications
LOM’s applicability is across a wide spectrum of industries, including industrial equipment for aerospace or
automotive industries, consumer products, and medical devices ranging from instruments to prostheses.
LOM parts are ideal in design applications where it is important to visualize what the final piece will look
like, or to test for form, fit and function; as well as in a manufacturing environment to create prototypes,
make production tooling or even produce a small volume of finished goods.
(1) Visualization. Many companies utilize LOM’s ability to produce exact dimensions of a potential product
purely for visualization. LOM part’s wood-like composition allows it to be painted or finished as a true
replica of the product. As the LOM procedure is inexpensive several models can be created, giving sales and
marketing executives opportunities to utilize these prototypes for consumer testing, marketing product
introductions, packaging samples, and samples for vendor quotations.
(2) Form, fit and function. LOM parts lend themselves well for design verification and performance
evaluation. In low-stress environments LOM parts can withstand basic tests, giving
manufacturers the opportunity to make changes as well as evaluate the aesthetic property of the prototype in
its total environment.
(3) Manufacturing. The LOM part’s composition is such that, based on the sealant or finishing products used,
it can be further tooled for use as a pattern or mold for most secondary tooling techniques including:
investment casting, casting, sanding casting, injection molding, silicon rubber mold, vacuum forming and
spray metal molding. LOM parts offer several advantages important for the secondary tooling process,
namely: predictable level of accuracy across the entire part; stability and resistance to shrinkage, warpage
and deformity; and the flexibility to create a master or a mold. In many industries the master created through
secondary tooling, or even when the LOM part serves as the master (e.g., vacuum forming), withstands
enough injections, wax shootings or vacuum pressure to produce a low production run from 5 to 1000 pieces.
(4) Rapid tooling. Two part negative tooling is easily created with LOM systems. Since the material is solid
and inexpensive, bulk complicated tools are cost effective to produce. These wood-like molds can be used for
injection of wax, polyurethane, epoxy or other low pressure and low temperature materials. Also, the tooling
can be converted to aluminum or steel via the investment casting process for use in high temperature molding
processes.
Example: Case Sudy
National Aeronautical and Space Administration (NASA) and Boeing Rocket dyne Uses LOMTM to
Create Hot Gas Manifold for Space Shuttle
Main Engine
One successful example of how an organization implements LOMTM systems into their design process
would be from the Rapid Prototyping Laboratory, NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), Huntville,
AL.
The laboratory was set up initially to conduct research and development in different ways to advance the
technology of building parts in space by remote processing methods. However, as MSFC engineers found a
lot more useful applications, i.e., production of concept models and proof-out of component designs other
than remote processing when rapid prototyping machines were installed, the center soon became a rapid
prototyping shop for other MSFC groups, as well as other NASA locations and NASA subcontractors.
The center acquired the LOM-1015TM machine from Helisys in 1999 to add on their existing rapid
prototyping systems and the machine was put through its first challenge when MSFC’s contractor, Boeing/
Rocketdyne designed a hot gas manifold for the space shuttle’s main engine. The part measured 2.40 m (8 ft)
long and 0.10 m (4 in) in diameter and was complex in design with many twists and turns and “tee” junction
connectors. If the conventional method of creating the prototype were employed, it would require individual
steel parts to be welded together to form the prototype. However, there was always a potential of leakage at
the joint part and thus, an alternate method was
considered. The prototype was to be made from a single piece of steel and such a solution was not only
expensive, the prototype built did not fit well to the main engine of the space shuttle.
Eventually, engineers at Boeing decided to build the part using the LOMTM process at MSFC. They
prepared a CAD drawing of the design and sent it over to MSFC. The design was sectioned into eight parts,
each with the irregular boss-and-socket built in them so as to facilitate joining of the parts together upon
completion. The whole building process took ten days to complete, including three days of rework for flawed
parts. It was worked on continuously. One advantage of using the LOMTM machine is that the system can be
left unattended throughout the building process and if the system runs out of paper or the paper gets jammed
while building, it is able to alert the operator via a pager. The prototype was then mounted onto the actual
space shuttle for final fit check analysis. It was estimated that the company saved tens of thousands of
dollars, although Boeing declined to reveal the actual cost saving. The whole process also
drastically reduces the building time from two to three months to a mere ten days.
FUSED DEPOSITION MODELING (FDM)
Models and Specifications
Stratasys has developed a series of rapid prototyping machines and also a wide range of modeling materials
to cater to various industries’ needs. The company’s rapid prototyping systems can be broadly classified into
two categories, the FDM series and the concept modeler.
The FDM series include models like FDM 3000, FDM Maxum and FDM Titan. The concept modeler series
includes models like Dimension and Prodigy Plus. A summary of the product specifications is found in
Tables .
Introduction:
Fused Deposition Modeling is an extrusion based rapid prototyping process although it works on the same
layer by layer principle as other RP systems. Fused Deposition Modeling relies on standard STL data file
for input and is capable of using multiple build materials in a build or support relationship.
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) machine is basically a CNC-controlled robot carrying a miniature
extruder head. By feeding the head with a plastic wire, solid objects are built "string by string". In this
technique, filaments of heated thermoplastic are extruded from a tip that moves in the x-y plane. Like a baker
decorating a cake, the controlled extrusion head deposits very thin beads of material onto the build platform
to form the first layer. The platform is maintained at a lower temperature, so that the thermoplastic quickly
hardens. After the platform lowers, the extrusion head deposits a second layer upon the first. Supports are
built along the way, fastened to the part either with a second, weaker material or with a perforated junction
Software Used:
FDM machine uses Quick Slice software to manipulate and prepare the incoming STL date for use in FDM
machines. Software can be operated on various types of workstations from UNIX to PC based.
Build Materials:
1) Investment Casting Wax.
2) Acrilonitrile Butadiene Styrene plastic.
3) Elastomer.
Extrusion Head:
1) It is a key to FDM technology.
2) Compact and removable unit.
3) It consists of Dry Blocks, Heating Chamber and Tips.
Dry Blocks:
a) These are raw material feeding mechanisms and are mounted on back of head.
b) These are computer controlled.
c) Capable of precision loading and unloading of filament.
d) It consists of two parallel wheels attached to a small electric motor by gears.
e) The wheels have a plastic and rubber thread and are spaced approximately 0.07inches apart and turn
opposite to one another.
f) When the wheels are turned in and end of the filament is placed between them, they continue to push or
pull the material depending on direction of rotation.
g) When loading the filament is pushed horizontally into the head through a hole, a little longer than the
filament diameter which is the entry to the heating chamber.
Heating Chamber:
a) It is a 90’ curved elbow wrapped in a heating element which serves two primary functions To change the
direction of the filament flow so that the material is extruded vertically downwards. To serve as a melting
area for the material
b) The heating element is electronically controlled and has feedback thermocouple to allow for a stable
temperature throughout.
c) The heating elements are held at a temperature just above the melting point of the material so that the
filament passes from the exit of the chamber is in molten state. This allows for smooth extrusion as well as
time control on material placement.
d) At the end of the heating chamber which is about 4 inch long is the extrusion orifice or tip.
Tip:
a) The two tips are externally threaded and screwed up into the heating chamber exit and are used to reduce
the extruded filament diameter to allow for better detailed modelling
b) .The tips are heated by heating chamber up to above the melting point of the material.
c) The tips can be removed and replaced with different size openings, the two most common being 0.012
inch and 0.025 inches.
d) The extruding surface of the tip is flat serving as the hot shearing surface to maintain a smooth upper
finish of extruded material.
e) The tip is the point at which the material is deposited onto a foam substrate to build the model..
Build Substrate:
1) The foam substrate is an expendable work table once which parts are built.
2) The substrate is about 1 inch thick and is passed on into a removable tray by one quarter inch pins.
3) The foam used is capable of withstanding higher temperature. As for the first few layers of the part, the
hot extrusion orifices are touching the substrate.
4) The support material is used to support overhangs, internal cavities and thin sections during extrusion as
well as to provide a base to anchor (part) to the substrate while building.
FDM OPERATION:
i. CAD file preparation:
• Before building the part, the STL file has to be converted into the machine language understood by FDM.
Quick Slice software is used for this purpose.
• The STL file is read into Quick Slice and is displayed graphically on screen in Cartesian co-ordinate system
(XYZ)
• Building box represents maximum build envelope of FDM.
• Quick slice gives us options on the FDM system being used, the slice layer thickness, the build and support
materials as well as tip sizes.
ii. Part Size:
The part must fit into the building box, if not it will either have to be scaled down to fit or be sectioned so
that the pieces can be built separately and then bonded together later.
iii. Orientation and Positioning:
Once the part has been built in appropriate built size, the part should be oriented in an optimum position for
building. The shape of the part plays an important role in this, in that some orientations may require less
supporting of overhangs than the others.
iv. Slicing:
Once the part has been properly oriented and or scaled it must be sliced. Slicing is a software operation that
creates thin horizontal cross sections of STL file that will later be used to create control code for the machine.
In Quick Slice, the slice thickness can be changed before slicing, the typical slices ranging from 0.005 inches
to 0.015 inches.
Quick Slice allows
• To perform simple editing functions on slice files. Also editing function allows repair of minor flaws in the
STL file with the options of closing and merging of curves.
Build Parameters:
A. Sets:
Quick Slice uses sets or packages of build parameters. Sets contain all of the build instructions for a selected
set of curves in a part. Sets allow a part to be built with several different settings E.g. One set may be used
for supporting structure of the part, one for part face, another for thicker sections of the part and still another
for exposed surfaces of the part. This allows flexibility of building bulkier sections and internal fills quickly
by getting finer details on visible areas of a part.
Sets also allow chosen sections of a part to build hollow, cross hatched or solid if so desired.
Two of the build parameters commonly worked with are road width and fill spacing.
B. Road Width:
Road Width is the width of the ribbon of molten material that is extruded from the tip. When FDM builds a
layer, it usually begins by outlining the cross section with a perimeter road, sometimes followed by one or
more concentric contours inside of perimeters.
Next it begins to fill remaining internal area in a raster or hatched pattern until a complete solid layer is
finished. Therefore three types of roads are Perimeter, Contour and Raster.
C. Fill Spacing:
Fill spacing is the distance left between raster’s or contours that make up interior solids of the parts. A fill
spacing set at zero means that part will be built solid.
D. Creating and Outputting Roads:
Once all parameters have been set, road are created graphically by Quick Slice. The user is then allowed to
preview each slice if so desired to see if the part is going to build as required.
E. Getting a Build Time Estimate:
Quick slice has a very good build time estimator which activates when an SML file is written. SML stands
for Stratasys Machine Language. Basically it displays in the command windows, the approximate amount
of time and material to be used for given part. Build time estimate allows for a efficient tracking and
scheduling of FDM system work loads.
F. Building a part:
The FDM receives a SML file and will begin by moving the head to the extreme X and Y portions to find it
and then raises the platen to a point to where the foam substrate is just below heated tips. After checking the
raw material supply and temperature settings, the user then manually places the head at point where the part
has to be built on the foam and then presses a button to begin building. After that FDM will build part
completely without any user intervention.
G. Finishing a FDM part:
FDM parts are an easiest part to finish.
.
h. Investment casting and injection molding.
Advantages:
a. Strength and temperature capability of build materials.
b. Safe laser free operation.
c. Easy Post Processing.
d. Quick and cheap generation of models.
e. Easy and convenient date building.
f. No worry of possible exposure to toxic chemicals, lasers, or a liquid polymer bath.
g. No wastage of material during or after producing the model.
h. No requirement of clean-up.
i. Quick change of materials.
Disadvantages:
a. Process is slower than laser based systems.
b. Build Speed is low.
c. Thin vertical column prove difficult to build with FDM.
d. Physical contact with extrusion can sometimes topple or at least shift thin vertical columns and walls.
e. Restricted accuracy due to the shape of the material used: wire of 1.27 mm diameter .
In this patented process, a geometric model of a conceptual design is created on a CAD software which uses
IGES or STL formatted files. It can then imported into the workstation where it is processed through the
QuickSlice and SupportWork TM propriety software before loading to FDM 3000 or similar systems. For
FDM Maxum and Titan, a newer software known as Insight is used. The basic function of Insight is similar
to that of QuickSlice and the only difference is that Insight does not need another software to auto-generate
the supports. The function is incorporated into the software itself. Within this software, the CAD file is sliced
into horizontal layers after the part is oriented for the optimum build position, and any necessary support
structures are automatically detected and generated. The slice thickness can be set manually to anywhere
between 0.172 to 0.356 mm depending on the needs of the models. Tool paths of the build process are then
generated which are downloaded to the FDM machine.
The modeling material is in spools — very much like a fishing line. The filament on the spools is fed into an
extrusion head and heated to a semi-liquid state. The semi-liquid material is extruded through the head and
then deposited in ultra thin layers from the FDM head, one layer at a time. Since the air surrounding the head
is maintained at a temperature below the materials’ melting point, the exiting material quickly solidifies.
Moving on the X–Y plane, the head follows the tool path generated by QuickSlice or Insight generating the
desired layer.
When the layer is completed, the head moves on to create the next layer. The horizontal width of the
extruded material can vary between 0.250 to 0.965 mm depending on model. This feature, called “road
width”, can vary from slice to slice. Two modeler materials are dispensed through a dual tip mechanism in
the FDM machine. A primary modeler material is used to produce the model geometry and a secondary
material, or release material, is used to produce the support structures. The release material forms a bond
with the primary modeler material and can be washed away upon completion of the 3D models.
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
Scott Crump, the president and CEO of Stratasys Inc, developed the Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
processin 1988 and the patent was awarded in the U.S. in 1992. The FDM process fabricates parts by
extruding semi-molten material thought a extrusion head that traverses in X axis and Y axis to create each
two dimensional layer of the part. The movable extrusion head composed of two extrusion nozzles one for
build material and the other for support material. This process can be seen in Figure. The extrusion head
deposits a filament of molten material either build material or support material onto a foam base. The build
material is heated to 0.5°C above its melting point so that it solidifies about 0.1s after extrusion and cold
welds to the previous layers. In general, an outline of the perimeter of the part is extruded from the head first
and then the interior is raster filled by the extruder head. Once a layer is built, the platform lowers, and the
extrusion head deposits another layer. The machine continues to build the part layer by layer until it is
complete. When the part is finished, it is removed from the machine and the support material need to move
away to reveal the finished product. There are two types of support material: Soluble support system and
Break-Away Support System (BASS).It can be removed with specialized equipment utilizing water-based
sodium 9In the FDM process, there is also a large range of colors and materials available, such as investment
casting wax and thermoplastic. The material generally used is a thermoplastic including ABS plastic, medical
grade ABS (MABS), elastomers, polycarbonate, polyphenyl-sulfone(PPSF), and Ultem [Link] main
advantages of using FDM technology are fabrication of functional parts, minimal material wastage, ease of
support material removal, and ease of material change A disadvantage of using FDM technology is that the
surface finish of the parts is worse than other rapid prototyping systems due to the resolution of the process
which is dictated by the filament thickness. The other disadvantage is that the building process is slow, as the
whole cross-sectional area needs to be filled with building material. Unpredictable shrinkage is also a
disadvantage of using FDM technology. As the FDM process extrudes the build material from its extrusion
head and cools them rapidly on deposition, stresses induced by such rapid cooling invariably are introduced
into the model. As such, shrinkages and distortions caused to the model built are a common occurrence and
are usually difficult to predict hydroxide solution, or break it away by hand.
Principle
The principle of the FDM is based on surface chemistry, thermal energy, and layer manufacturing
technology. The material in filament (spool) form is melted in a specially designed head, which extrudes on
the model. As it is extruded, it is cooled and thus solidifies to form the model. The model is built layer by
layer, like the other RP systems. Parameters which affect performance and functionalities of the system are
material column strength, material flexural modulus, material viscosity, positioning accuracy, road widths,
deposition speed, volumetric flow rate, tip diameter, envelope temperature, and part geometry.
Advantages and Disadvantages
The main advantages of using FDM technology are as follows:
(1) Fabrication of functional parts. FDM process is able to fabricate prototypes with materials that are similar
to that of the actual molded product. With ABS, it is able to fabricate fully functional parts that have 85% of
the strength of the actual molded part. This is especially useful in developing products that require quick
prototypes for functional testing.
(2) Minimal wastage. The FDM process build parts directly by extruding semi-liquid melt onto the model.
Thus only those material needed to build the part and its support are needed, and material wastages are kept
to a minimum. There is also little need for cleaning up the model after it has been built.
(3) Ease of support removal. With the use of Break Away Support System (BASS) and WaterWorks Soluble
Support System, support structures generated during the FDM building process can be easily
broken off or simply washed away. This makes it very convenient for users to get to their prototypes very
quickly and there is very little or no post-processing necessary.
(4) Ease of material change. Build materials, supplied in spool form (or cartridge form in the case of the
Dimension or Prodigy Plus), are easy to handle and can be changed readily when the materials in the system
are running low. This keeps the operation of the machine simple and the maintenance relatively easy.
The main disadvantages of using FDM technology are as follows:
(1) Restricted accuracy. Parts built with the FDM process usually have restricted accuracy due to the shape of
the material used, i.e., the filament form. Typically, the filament used has a diameter of 1.27 mm and this
tends to set a limit on how accurately the part can be built.
(2) Slow process. The building process is slow, as the whole cross sectional area needs to be filled with
building materials. Building speed is restricted by the extrusion rate or the flow rate of the build
material from the extrusion head. As the build material used are plastics and their viscosities are relatively
high, the build process cannot be easily speeded up.
(3) Unpredictable shrinkage. As the FDM process extrudes the build material from its extrusion head and
cools them rapidly on deposition, stresses induced by such rapid cooling invariably are introduced into the
model. As such, shrinkages and distortions caused to the model built are a common occurrence and are
usually difficult to predict, though with experience, users may be able to compensate for these by adjusting
the process parameters of the machine.
Applications
FDM models can be used in the following general applications areas:
(1) Concept or Design [Link] for conceptualization and presentation. Models can be marked,
sanded, painted and drilled and thus can be finished to be almost like the actual product.
(2) Direct Use Components. Prototypes for design, analysis and functional testing. The system can produce a
fully functional prototype in ABS. The resulting ABS parts have 85% of the strength of the actual molded
part. Thus actual testing can be carried out, especially with consumer products.
(3) Investment Casting. Patterns and masters for tooling. Models can be used as patterns for investment
casting, sand casting and molding.
(4) Medical Applications
(5) Fit, form and functional applications and models for further manufacturing procedures
EMAQMPLES: Case Studies:
Toyota Uses FDM for Design and Testing Toyota, the fourth-largest automobile manufacturer in the
United States, produces more than one million vehicles per year. Its design and testing of vehicles are mainly
done at the Toyota Technical Center (TTL) USA Inc.
In 1997, TTL purchased the Stratasys FDM 8000 fused deposition modeler (FDM) system to improve on
their efficiency in design and testing. The system, not only is able to produce excellent physical properties
prototype, it is also able to produce them fast. Furthermore, the system does not require any special
environment to be operated in.
In the past, fabricating a prototype was costly and time consuming at TTL. To manufacture a fully functional
prototype vehicle, it required $10 000 to $100 000 to manufacture a prototype injection mold and it took as
long as 16 weeks to produce. Furthermore, the number of parts required was around 20 to 50 pieces and thus,
the conventional tooling method is unnecessarily costly.
In the Avalon 2000 project, TTL replaced its conventional tooling method with the FDM system. Although a
modest 35 parts were being replaced by rapid prototypes, it was estimated that it saved Toyota more than $2
million in prototype tooling costs. Moreover, rapid prototyping also helped designers to identify
unforeseeable problems early in the design stage. It would have added to the production costs significantly if
the problems were discovered during the production stage.
The physical properties of these prototypes are not identical to those made from the conventional method, but
nevertheless, as claimed by one of the staff in TTL, they are often good enough. TTL plans to increase its
rapid prototyping capacities by introducing additional units of the FDM system. Its aim is to eliminate all
conventional prototyping tooling and go straight to production tooling in the near future.
[Link] JP Pattern Uses FDM for Production Tooling
JP Pattern, a prototype and production tooling service bureau in Butler, Wisconsin, was chosen by Ford
Motor Company to work with a Chapter 4: Solid-Based Rapid Prototyping Systems 133 consortium of
companies dedicated to finding a faster and less expensive way to produce dunnages [14]. Dunnages are
material handling parts used to hold bumpers and fenders in place when they are shipped or used in Ford’s
production line. By Stratagys’ FDM process, the rapid prototypemaster (Figure 4.7) was created in
investment casting wax. The wax model was then used to create ceramic shell molds, which were investment
cast in A2 steel. By using the FDM process, 50% of the costs on production tooling were saved while
achieving a 50% time savings when compared with conventional methods