Module-4 CCC100

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OPERATING SYSTEM

An Operating system (OS) is software which acts as an interface between the end
user and computer hardware. Every computer must have at least one OS to run other
programs. An application like Chrome, MS Word, Games, etc. needs some environment
in which it will run and perform its task. The OS helps you to communicate with the
computer without knowing how to speak the computer's language. It is not possible for
the user to use any computer or mobile device without having an operating system.

It acts as an intermediary or translation

system between computer hardware and
application programs installed on the
computer. In other words, you cannot directly
use computer programs with computer
hardware without having a medium to
establish a connection between them.

Besides this, it is also an intermediary

between the computer user and the computer
hardware as it provides a standard user
interface that you see on your computer
screen after you switch on your computer.
For example, the Windows and the Mac OS
are also operating systems that provide a
graphical interface with icons and pictures to
enable users to access multiple files and applications simultaneously. So, although the operating system is itself a
program or software, it allows users to run other programs or applications on the system. We can say that is
works behind the scenes to run your computer.

What is a Kernel?

The kernel is the central component of a computer operating systems. The only job
performed by the kernel is to manage the communication between the software and the
hardware. A Kernel is at the nucleus of a computer. It makes the communication between
the hardware and software possible. While the Kernel is the innermost part of an
operating system, a shell is the outermost one.

Features of Kennel

 Low-level scheduling of processes

 Inter-process communication
 Process synchronization
 Context switching
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Types of Kernels

There are many types of kernels that exists, but among them, the two most popular
kernels are:

1. Monolithic
A monolithic kernel is a single code or block of the program. It provides all the required
services offered by the operating system. It is a simplistic design which creates a distinct
communication layer between the hardware and software.
2. Microkernels
Microkernel manages all system resources. In this type of kernel, services are
implemented in different address space. The user services are stored in user address space,
and kernel services are stored under kernel address space. So, it helps to reduce the size
of both the kernel and operating system.

Functions of an Operating System

In an operating system software performs each of the function:

1. Process management: - Process management helps OS to create and delete

processes. It also provides mechanisms for synchronization and communication
among processes.
2. Memory management: - Memory management module performs the task of
allocation and de-allocation of memory space to programs in need of this resources.
3. File management: - It manages all the file-related activities such as organization
storage, retrieval, naming, sharing, and protection of files.
4. Device Management: Device management keeps tracks of all devices. This module
also responsible for this task is known as the I/O controller. It also performs the task
of allocation and de-allocation of the devices.
5. I/O System Management: One of the main objects of any OS is to hide the
peculiarities of that hardware devices from the user.
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6. Secondary-Storage Management: Systems have several levels of storage which

includes primary storage, secondary storage, and cache storage. Instructions and data
must be stored in primary storage or cache so that a running program can reference
it.
7. Security: - Security module protects the data and information of a computer system
against malware threat and authorized access.
8. Command interpretation: This module is interpreting commands given by the and
acting system resources to process that commands.
9. Networking: A distributed system is a group of processors which do not share
memory, hardware devices, or a clock. The processors communicate with one
another through the network.
10. Job accounting: Keeping track of time & resource used by various job and users.
11. Communication management: Coordination and assignment of compilers,
interpreters, and another software resource of the various users of the computer
systems.

Types of Operating system

 Batch Operating System

 Multitasking/Time Sharing OS
 Multiprocessing OS
 Real Time OS
 Distributed OS
 Network OS
 Mobile OS

Batch Operating System

Some computer processes are very lengthy and time-consuming. To speed the same
process, a job with a similar type of needs are batched together and run as a group.
The user of a batch operating system never directly interacts with the computer. In this
type of OS, every user prepares his or her job on an offline device like a punch card and
submit it to the computer operator.

Multi-Tasking/Time-sharing Operating systems

Time-sharing operating system enables people located at a different terminal(shell) to use

a single computer system at the same time. The processor time (CPU) which is shared
among multiple users is termed as time sharing.

Real time OS

A real time operating system time interval to process and respond to inputs is very small.
Examples: Military Software Systems, Space Software Systems.

Distributed Operating System

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Distributed systems use many processors located in different machines to provide very
fast computation to its users.

Network Operating System

Network Operating System runs on a server. It provides the capability to serve to manage
data, user, groups, security, application, and other networking functions.

Mobile OS

Mobile operating systems are those OS which is especially that are designed to power
smartphones, tablets, and wearable devices.
Some most famous mobile operating systems are Android and iOS, but others include
BlackBerry, Web, and watch OS.

Difference between Firmware and Operating System

Firmware Operating System

Firmware is one kind of OS provides functionality over and

programming that is embedded on a above that which is provided by the
chip in the device which controls firmware.
that specific device.

Firmware is programs that been OS is a program that can be installed

encoded by the manufacture of the by the user and can be changed.
IC or something and cannot be
changed.

It is stored on non-volatile memory. OS is stored on the hard drive.

Difference between 32-Bit vs. 64 Bit Operating System

Parameters 32. Bit 64. Bit

Architecture and Allow 32 bit of data processing Allow 64 bit of data

Software simultaneously processing simultaneously

Compatibility 32-bit applications require 32-bit 64-bit applications require a

OS and CPUs. 64-bit OS and CPU.
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Systems Available All versions of Windows 8, Windows XP Professional,

Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Vista, 7, Mac OS X and
Windows XP, Linux, etc. Linux.

Memory Limits 32-bit systems are limited to 3.2 64-bit systems allow a
GB of RAM. maximum 17 Billion GB of
RAM.

The advantage of using Operating System

 Allows you to hide details of hardware by creating an abstraction

 Easy to use with a GUI
 Offers an environment in which a user may execute programs/applications
 The operating system must make sure that the computer system convenient to use
 Operating System acts as an intermediary among applications and the hardware
components
 It provides the computer system resources with easy to use format
 Acts as an intermediary between all hardware's and software's of the system

Disadvantages of using Operating System

 If any issue occurs in OS, you may lose all the contents which have been stored in your
system
 Operating system's software is quite expensive for small size organization which adds
burden on them. Example Windows
 It is never entirely secure as a threat can occur at any time

History of OS

 Operating systems were first developed in the late 1950s to manage tape storage
 The General Motors Research Lab implemented the first OS in the early 1950s for their
IBM 701
 In the mid-1960s, operating systems started to use disks
 In the late 1960s, the first version of the Unix OS was developed
 The first OS built by Microsoft was DOS. It was built in 1981 by purchasing the 86-DOS
software from a Seattle company
 The present-day popular OS Windows first came to existence in 1985 when a GUI was
created and paired with MS-DOS.

Examples of Operating System with Market Share

 Here is a list of
Operating
Systems with
the latest
Market Share
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Features of Operating System

Here is a list commonly found important features of an Operating System:

 Protected and supervisor mode

 Allows disk access and file systems Device Drivers Networking Security
 Program Execution
 Memory management Virtual Memory Multitasking
 Handling I/O operations
 Manipulation of the file system
 Error Detection and handling
 Resource allocation
 Information and Resource Protection
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NETWORKING

What is a Computer
Network?

A computer network is a
group of two or more
interconnected computer
systems. You can
establish a network
connection using either
cable or wireless media.
Every network involves
hardware and software
that connects computers
and tools.

Advantages of a
Computer Network

Here are the fundamental benefits/pros of using Computer Networking:

 Helps you to connect with multiple computers together to send and receive information
when accessing the network.
 Helps you to share printers, scanners, and email.
 Helps you to share information at very fast speed
 Electronic communication is more efficient and less expensive than without the network.


Computer Network Components

Here are essential computer network components:

Switches
Switches work as a controller which connects computers, printers, and other hardware
devices to a network in a campus or a building. It allows devices on your network to
communicate with each other, as well as with other networks. It helps you to share
resources and reduce the costing of any organization.
Routers
Routers help you to connect with multiple networks. It enables you to share a single
internet connection with multiple devices and saves money. This networking component
acts as a dispatcher, which allows you to analyze data sent across a network. It
automatically selects the best route for data to travel and send it on its way.
Servers:
Servers are computers that hold shared programs, files, and the network operating system.
Servers allow access to network resources to all the users of the network.
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Clients:
Clients are computer devices which access and uses the network as well as shares
network resources. They are also users of the network, as they can send and receive
requests from the server.
Transmission Media:
Transmission media is a carrier used to interconnect computers in a network, such as
coaxial cable, twisted-pair wire, and optical fiber cable. It is also known as links,
channels, or lines.
Access points
Access points allow devices to connect to the wireless network without cables. A wireless
network allows you to bring new devices and provides flexible support to mobile users.
Shared Data:
Shared data are data which is shared between the clients such as data files, printer access
programs, and email.
Network Interface Card:
Network Interface card sends, receives data, and controls data flow between the computer
and the network.
Local Operating System:
A local OS which helps personal computers to access files, print to a local printer and
uses one or more disk and CD drives which are located on the computer.
Network Operating System:
The network operating system is a program which runs on computers and servers. It
allows the computers to communicate via network.
Protocol:
A protocol is the set of defined rules that allows two entities to communicate across the
network. Some standard protocols used for this purpose are IP, TCP, UDP, FTP, etc.
Hub:
Hub is a device that splits network connection into multiple computers. It acts a
distribution center so whenever a computer requests any information from a computer or
from the network it sends the request to the hub through a cable. The hub will receive the
request and transmit it to the entire network.
LAN Cable:
Local Area Network (LAN) cable is also called as Ethernet or data cable. It is used for
connecting a device to the internet.
OSI:
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It is a reference model which allows you
to specify standards for communications.

Unique Identifiers of Network

Below given are some unique network identifiers:

Hostname:

Every device of the network is associated with a unique device, which is called hostname.
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IP Address:

IP (Internet Protocol) address is as a unique identifier for each device on the Internet.
Length of the IP address is 32-bits. IPv6 address is 64 bits.

DNS Server:

DNS stands for Domain Name System. It is a server which translates URL or web
addresses into their corresponding IP addresses.

MAC Address:

MAC (Media Access Control Address) is known as a physical address is a unique

identifier of each host and is associated with the NIC (Network Interface Card).
General length of MAC address is: 12-digit/ 6 bytes/ 48 bits

Port:

Port is a logical channel which allows network users to send or receive data to an
application. Every host can have multiple applications running. Each of these
applications are identified using the port number on which they are running.

Other Important Network Components

ARP:

ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol which helps network users to convert
the IP address into its corresponding Physical Address.

RARP:

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol gives an IP address of the device with given a
physical address as input.

Uses of Computer Networks

Here are some common application of computer networks

 Helps you to share resource such as printers

 Allows you to share expensive software's and database among network
participants
 Provides fast and effective communication from one computer to another
computer
 Helps you to exchange data and information among users via a network.

Disadvantages of using Computer Networks

Here are drawbacks/ cons of using computer networks:

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 Investment for hardware and software can be costly for initial set-up
 If you don't take proper security precautions like file encryption, firewalls then
your data will be at risk.
 Some components of the network design may not last for many years, and it will
become useless or malfunction and need to be replaced.
 Requires time for constant administration
 Frequent server failure and issues of regular cable faults

Types of Computer Networks According to SIZE

There are various types of computer networks available. We can categorize them
according to their size as well as their purpose. The size of a network should be
expressed by the geographic area and number of computers, which are a part of their
networks. It includes devices housed in a single room to millions of devices spread across
the world.

Some of the most popular network types are:

 PAN
 LAN
 MAN
 WAN

PAN (Personal Area Network)?

PAN is a computer network formed around a person. It generally consists of a computer,

mobile, or personal digital assistant. PAN can be used for establishing communication
among these personal devices for connecting to a digital network and the internet.

Characteristics of PAN

 It is mostly personal devices network equipped within a limited area.

 Allows you to handle the interconnection of IT devices at the surrounding of a
single user.
 PAN includes mobile devices, tablet, and laptop.
 It can be wirelessly connected to the internet called WPAN.
 Appliances use for PAN: cordless mice, keyboards, and Bluetooth systems.
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Advantages of PAN

Here, are important pros/benefits of using PAN network:

 PAN networks are relatively secure and safe

 It offers only short-range solution up to ten meters
 Strictly restricted to a small area

Disadvantages of PAN

Here are important cons/ drawback of using PAN network:

 It
may establish a bad connection to other networks at the same radio bands.
 Distance limits.

LAN

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of

computer and peripheral devices which are
connected in a limited area such as school,
laboratory, home, and office building. It is a
widely useful network for sharing resources
like files, printers, games, and other
application. The simplest type of LAN
network is to connect computers and a printer
in someone's home or office. In general, LAN
will be used as one type of transmission
medium.
It is a network which consists of less than 5000 interconnected devices across several
buildings.

Characteristics of LAN
Here are important characteristics of a LAN network:

 It
is a private network, so an outside regulatory body never controls it.
 LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other WAN systems.
 There are various kinds of media access control methods like token ring and
ethernet.

Advantages of LAN
Here are pros/benefits of using LAN:

 Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share local
area networks. This significantly reduces the cost of hardware purchases.
 You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the
licensed software for each client in the network.
 Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server
computer.
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 You can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.
 It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more secure.
 Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection
among all the LAN users.

Disadvantages of LAN

Here are the important cons/ drawbacks of LAN:

 LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer resources, but the initial
cost of installing Local Area Networks is quite high.
 The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it does not
offer good privacy.

Characteristics of LAN:

 The software files will be shared among all the users; therefore, all can access to
the latest files.
 Any organization can form its global integrated network using WAN.
 Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in case LAN
admin is not able to secure centralized data repository.
 Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there are issues
related to software setup and hardware failures

WAN?

WAN (Wide Area Network) is another important

computer network that which is spread across a large
geographical area. WAN network system could be a
connection of a LAN which connects with other
LAN's using telephone lines and radio waves. It is
mostly limited to an enterprise or an organization.

Advantages of WAN
Here are the benefits/ pros of using WAN:

 WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area. Therefore, business offices
situated at longer distances can easily communicate.
 Contains devices like mobile phones, laptop, tablet, computers, gaming consoles,
etc.
 WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers built into client
devices.

Disadvantage of WAN
Here are drawbacks/cons of using WAN:

 The initial setup cost of investment is very high.

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 It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled technicians and
network administrators.
 There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage and the use of
different technologies.
 It requires more time to resolve issues because of the involvement of multiple
wired and wireless technologies.

MAN

A Metropolitan Area Network or

MAN is consisting of a computer
network across an entire city,
college campus, or a small region.
This type of network is large than a
LAN, which is mostly limited to a
single building or site. Depending
upon the type of configuration, this
type of network allows you to
cover an area from several miles to
tens of miles.
Characteristics of MAN
Here are important characteristics of the MAN network:

 It
mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 50 km range
 Mostly used medium is optical fibers, cables
 Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.

Advantages of MAN
Here are pros/benefits of using MAN system:

 It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic cables.
 It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater access to
WANs.
 The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in both
directions concurrently.
 A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.

Disadvantages of MAN
Here are drawbacks/ cons of using the MAN network:

 You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to another.
 In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers

Other Types of Networks

Apart from above mentioned here, are some other important types of networks:

 WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network)

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 Storage Area Network

 System Area Network
 Home Area Network
 POLAN- Passive Optical LAN
 Enterprise private network
 Campus Area Network
 Virtual Area Network

1) WLAN
WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network) helps you to link single or multiple devices using
wireless communication within a limited area like home, school, or office building. It
gives users an ability to move around within a local coverage area which may be
connected to the network. Today most modern day's WLAN systems are based on IEEE
802.11 standards.
2) Storage-Area Network (SAN)
A Storage Area Network is a type of network which allows consolidated, block-level data
storage. It is mainly used to make storage devices, like disk arrays, optical jukeboxes, and
tape libraries.
3) System-Area Network
System Area Network is used for a local network. It offers high-speed connection in
server-to-server and processor-to-processor applications. The computers connected on a
SAN network operate as a single system at quite high speed.
4) Passive Optical Local Area Network
POLAN is a networking technology which helps you to integrate into structured cabling.
It allows you to resolve the issues of supporting Ethernet protocols and network apps.
POLAN allows you to use optical splitter which helps you to separate an optical signal
from a single-mode optical fiber. It converts this single signal into multiple signals.
5) Home Area Network (HAN):
A Home Area Network is always built using two or more interconnected computers to
form a local area network (LAN) within the home. For example, in the United States,
about 15 million homes have more than one computer.
This type of network helps computer owners to interconnect with multiple computers.
This network allows sharing files, programs, printers, and other peripherals.
6) Enterprise Private Network:
Enterprise private network (EPN) networks are build and owned by businesses that want
to securely connect numerous locations in order to share various computer resources.
7) Campus Area Network (CAN):
A Campus Area Network is made up of an interconnection of LANs within a specific
geographical area. For example, a university campus can be linked with a variety of
campus buildings to connect all the academic departments.
8) Virtual Private Network:
A VPN is a private network which uses a public network to connect remote sites or users
together. The VPN network uses "virtual" connections routed through the internet from
the enterprise's private network or a third-party VPN service to the remote site.
It is a free or paid service that keeps your web browsing secure and private over public
Wi-Fi hotspots.
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 Campus area network (CAN) is made up of an interconnection of LANs in a

specific geographical area
 A VPN is a private network which uses a public network to connect remote sites
or users together.

Topology

Network topologies describe the methods in which all the elements of a network are
mapped. The topology term refers to both the physical and logical layout of a network.

Types of Networking Topologies

Two main types of networking topologies are

1) Physical topology
2) Logical topology

Physical topology:

This type of network is an actual layout of the computer cables and other network
devices

Logical topology:

Logical topology gives insights about network's physical design.

Different types of Physical Topologies are:

 P2P Topology
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Star Topology
 Tree Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Hybrid Topology

Network Topology Diagram

Point to Point

Point-to-point topology is the easiest of all the network topologies. In this method,
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the network consists of a direct link

between two computers.
P2P Topology Diagram

Advantages:

 This is faster and highly reliable

than other types of connections since there
is a direct connection.
 No need for a network operating
system
 Does not need an expensive server as individual workstations are used to
access the files
 No need for any dedicated network technicians because each user sets their
permissions

Disadvantages:

 The biggest drawback is that it only be used for small areas where
computers are in close proximity.
 You can't back up files and folders centrally
 There is no security besides the permissions. Users often do not require to
log onto their workstations.

Bus Topology

Bus topology uses a single cable which connects all the included nodes. The main
cable acts as a spine for the entire network. One of the computers in the network acts
as the computer server. When it has two endpoints, it is known as a linear bus
topology.

Advantages:

Here are pros/benefits of using a

bus topology:

 Cost of the cable is very

less as compared to other
topology, so it is widely used to
build small networks.
 Famous for LAN
network because they are
inexpensive and easy to install.
 It is widely used when a network installation is small, simple, or temporary.
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 It
is one of the passive topologies. So computers on the bus only listen for
data being sent, that are not responsible for moving the data from one
computer to others.

Disadvantages:

Here are the cons/drawbacks of bus topology:

 In case if the common cable fails, then the entire system will crash down.
 When network traffic is heavy, it develops collisions
in the network.
 Whenever network traffic is heavy, or nodes are too
many, the performance time of the network
significantly decreases.
 Cables are always of a limited length.

Ring Topology

In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighboring devices for
communication purpose. It is called a ring topology as its formation is like a ring. In
this topology, every computer is connected to another computer. Here, the last node
is combined with a first one.
This topology uses token to pass the information from one computer to another. In
this topology, all the messages travel through a ring in the same direction.

Advantages:

Here are pros/benefits of ring topology:

 Easy to install and reconfigure.

 Adding or deleting a device in-ring topology needs you to move only two
connections.
 The troubleshooting process is difficult in a ring topology.
 Failure of one computer can disturb the whole network.
 Offers equal access to all the computers of the networks
 Faster error checking and acknowledgment.

Disadvantages:

Here are drawbacks/cons of ring topology:

 Unidirectional traffic.
 Break in a single ring can risk the breaking of the entire network
 Modern days high-speed LANs made this topology less popular.
 In the ring, topology signals are circulating at all times, which develops
unwanted power consumption.
 It is very difficult to troubleshoot the ring network.
 Adding or removing the computers can disturb the network activity.
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Star Topology

In the star topology, all the computers connect

with the help of a hub. This cable is called a
central node, and all other nodes are connected
using this central node. It is most popular on LAN
networks as they are inexpensive and easy to
install.

Advantages:

Here are pros/benefits of start topology:

 Easy to troubleshoot, set up, and modify.

 Only those nodes are affected, that has failed. Other nodes still work.
 Fast performance with few nodes and very low network traffic.
 In Star topology, addition, deletion, and moving of the devices are easy.

Disadvantages:

Here are cons/drawbacks of using Star:

 Ifthe hub or concentrator fails, attached nodes are disabled.

 Cost of installation of star topology is costly.
 Heavy network traffic can sometimes slow the bus considerably.
 Performance depends on the hub's capacity
 A damaged cable or lack of proper termination may bring the network down.

Mesh Topology

The mesh topology has a unique network design in which each computer on the
network connects to every other. It developed a P2P (point-to-point) connection
between all the devices of the network. It offers a high level of redundancy, so even
if one network cable fails, still data has an alternative path to reach its destination.

Types of Mesh Topology:

 Partial Mesh Topology: In this type of topology, most of the devices are
connected almost
similarly as full
topology. The only
difference is that
few devices are
connected with
just two or three
devices.
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Partially Connected Mesh Topology

 Full
Mesh Topology: In this topology, every nodes or device are directly
connected with each other.

Fully Connected Mesh Topology

Advantages:

Here, are pros/benefits of Mesh topology

 The network can be expanded without disrupting current users.

 Need extra capable compared with other LAN topologies
 Complicated implementation.
 No traffic problem as nodes has dedicated links.
 It has multiple links, so if any single route is blocked, then other routes
should be used for data communication.
 P2P links make the fault identification isolation process easy.
 It helps you to avoid the chances of network failure by connecting all the
systems to a central node.

Disadvantages:

 Installationis complex because every node is connected to every node.

 Dedicated links help you to eliminate the traffic problem.
 A mesh topology is robust.
 Every system has its privacy and security
 It is expensive due to the use of more cables. No proper utilization of
systems.
 It requires more space for dedicated links.
 Because of the amount of cabling and the number of input-outputs, it is
expensive to implement.
 It requires a large space to run the cables.
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Tree Topology

Tree topologies have a root node, and all other nodes are
connected which form a hierarchy. So it is also known as
hierarchical topology. This topology integrates various
star topologies together in a single bus, so it is known as
a Star Bus topology. Tree topology is a very common
network which is similar to a bus and star topology.

Advantages:

Here are pros/benefits of tree topology:

 Failure of one node never affects the rest of the network.

 Node expansion is fast and easy.
 Detection of error is an easy process
 It is easy to manage and maintain

Disadvantages:

Here are cons/drawback of tree topology:

 It is heavily cabled topology

 If more nodes are added, then its maintenance is difficult
 If the hub or concentrator fails, attached nodes are also disabled.

Hybrid Topology

Hybrid Topology

Hybrid topology combines two or more

topologies. You can see in the above
architecture in such a manner that the resulting
network does not exhibit one of the standard
topologies.
For example, as you can see in the above image
that in an office in one department, Star and
P2P topology is used. A hybrid topology is
always produced when two different basic
network topologies are connected.

Advantages:

Here, are advantages/pros using Hybrid topology:

 Offers the easiest method for error detecting and troubleshooting

 Highly effective and flexible networking topology
 It is scalable so you can increase your network size
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Disadvantages:

 The design of hybrid topology is complex

 It is one of the costliest processes

How to select a Network Topology?

Here are some important considerations for selecting the best topology to create a
network in your organization:

 Bus topology is surely least expensive to install a network.

 If you want to use a shorter cable or you planning to expand the network is
future, then star topology is the best choice for you.
 Fully mesh topology is theoretically an ideal choice as every device is connected
to every other device.
 If you want to use twisted pair cable for networking, then you should build star
topologies.

The OSI Model

The OSI Model is a logical and conceptual model that defines network communication
used by systems open to interconnection and communication with other systems. The
Open System Interconnection (OSI Model) also defines a logical network and effectively
describes computer packet transfer by using various layers of protocols.

Characteristics of OSI Model

Here are some important characteristics of the OSI model:

A layer should only be created where the definite levels of abstraction are
needed.
 The function of each layer should be selected as per the internationally
standardized protocols.
 The number of layers should be large so that separate functions should not be put
in the same layer. At the same time, it should be small enough so that architecture
doesn't become very complicated.
 In the OSI model, each layer relies on the next lower layer to perform primitive
functions. Every level should able to provide services to the next higher layer
 Changes made in one layer should not need changes in other lavers.

Why of OSI Model?

 Helps you to understand communication over a network

 Troubleshooting is easier by separating functions into different network layers.
 Helps you to understand new technologies as they are developed.
 Allows you to compare primary functional relationships on various network
layers.
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History of OSI Model

Here are essential landmarks from the history of OSI model:

 In the late 1970s, the ISO conducted a program to develop general standards and
methods of networking.
 In 1973, an Experimental Packet Switched System in the UK identified the
requirement for defining the higher-level protocols.
 In the year 1983, OSI model was initially intended to be a detailed specification
of actual interfaces.
 In 1984, the OSI architecture was formally adopted by ISO as an international
standard

7 Layers of the OSI Model

OSI model is a layered server architecture system in which each layer is defined
according to a specific function to perform. All these seven layers work collaboratively to
transmit the data from one layer to another.

 The Upper Layers: It deals with application issues and mostly implemented
only in software. The highest is closest to the end system user. In this layer,
communication from one end-user to another begins by using the interaction
between the application layer. It will process all the way to end-user.
 The Lower Layers: These layers handle activities related to data transport. The
physical layer and data link layers also implemented in software and hardware.

Upper and lower layers further divide network architecture into seven different layers as
below.

Network Layers Diagram

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Physical Layer

The physical layer helps you to define the electrical and physical specifications of the
data connection. This level establishes the relationship between a device and a physical
transmission medium. The physical layer is not concerned with protocols or other such
higher-layer items.
Examples of hardware in the physical layer are network adapters, Ethernet, repeaters,
networking hubs, etc.

Data Link Layer:

Data link layer corrects errors which can occur at the physical layer. The layer allows you
to define the protocol to establish and terminates a connection between two connected
network devices.
It is IP address understandable layer, which helps you to define logical addressing so that
any endpoint should be identified.
The layer also helps you implement routing of packets through a network. It helps you to
define the best path, which allows you to take data from the source to the destination.
The data link layer is subdivided into two types of sublayers:

1. Media Access Control (MAC) layer- It is responsible for controlling how

device in a network gain access to medium and permits to transmit data.
2. Logical link control layer- This layer is responsible for identity and
encapsulating network-layer protocols and allows you to find the error.

Important Functions of Datalink Layer:

 Framing which divides the data from Network layer into frames.
 Allows you to add header to the frame to define the physical address of the
source and the destination machine
 Adds Logical addresses of the sender and receivers
 It is also responsible for the sourcing process to the destination process delivery
of the entire message.
 It also offers a system for error control in which it detects retransmits damage or
lost frames.
 Datalink layer also provides a mechanism to transmit data over independent
networks which are linked together.

Transport Layer:
The transport layer builds on the network layer to provide data transport from a process
on a source machine to a process on a destination machine. It is hosted using single or
multiple networks, and also maintains the quality of service functions.
It determines how much data should be sent where and at what rate. This layer builds on
the message which are received from the application layer. It helps ensure that data units
are delivered error-free and in sequence.
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Transport layer helps you to control the reliability of a link through flow control, error
control, and segmentation or desegmentation.
The transport layer also offers an acknowledgment of the successful data transmission
and sends the next data in case no errors occurred. TCP is the best-known example of the
transport layer.
Important functions of Transport Layers:

 It divides the message received from the session layer into segments and
numbers them to make a sequence.
 Transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process
on the destination machine.
 Italso makes sure that the entire message arrives without any error else it should
be retransmitted.

Network Layer:
The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable
length data sequences from one node to another connected in "different networks".
Message delivery at the network layer does not give any guaranteed to be reliable
network layer protocol.
Layer-management protocols that belong to the network layer are:

1. routing protocols
2. multicast group management
3. network-layer address assignment.

Session Layer
Session Layer controls the dialogues between computers. It helps you to establish starting
and terminating the connections between the local and remote application. This layer
request for a logical connection which should be established on end user's requirement.
This layer handles all the important log-on or password validation Session layer offers
services like dialog discipline, which can be duplex or half-duplex. It is mostly
implemented in application environments that use remote procedure calls.
Important function of Session Layer:

 It establishes, maintains, and ends a session.

 Session layer enables two systems to enter into a dialog
 It also allows a process to add a checkpoint to steam of data.

Presentation Layer
Presentation layer allows you to define the form in which the data is to exchange between
the two communicating entities. It also helps you to handles data compression and data
encryption.
This layer transforms data into the form which is accepted by the application. It also
formats and encrypts data which should be sent across all the networks. This layer is also
known as a syntax layer.

The function of Presentation Layers:

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 Character code translation from ASCII to EBCDIC.

 Data compression: Allows to reduce the number of bits that needs to be
transmitted on the network.
 Data encryption: Helps you to encrypt data for security purposes — for example,
password encryption.
 It provides a user interface and support for services like email and file transfer.

Application Layer
Application layer interacts with an application program, which is the highest level of OSI
model. The application layer is the OSI layer, which is closest to the end-user. It means
OSI application layer allows users to interact with other software application.
Application layer interacts with software applications to implement a communicating
component. The interpretation of data by the application program is always outside the
scope of the OSI model.
Example of the application layer is an application such as file transfer, email, remote
login, etc.

The function of the Application Layers are:

 Application-layer helps you to identify communication partners, determining

resource availability, and synchronizing communication.
 It
allows users to log on to a remote host
 This layer provides various e-mail services
 This application offers distributed database sources and access for global
information about various objects and services.

Interaction between OSI Model Layers

Information sent from a one computer application to another needs to pass through each
of the OSI layers. This is explained in the below-given example:

 Every layer within an OSI model communicates with the other two layers which
are below it and its peer layer in some another networked computing system.

 Inthe below-given diagram, you can see that the data link layer of the first
system communicates with two layers, the network layer and the physical layer of
the system. It also helps you to communicate with the data link layer of, the
second system.
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Protocols supported at various levels

Layer Name Protocols

Layer 7 Application SMTP, HTTP, FTP, POP3, SNMP

Layer 6 Presentation MPEG, ASCH, SSL, TLS

Layer 5 Session NetBIOS, SAP

Layer 4 Transport TCP, UDP

Layer 3 Network IPV5, IPV6, ICMP, IPSEC, ARP, MPLS.

Layer 2 Data Link RAPA, PPP, Frame Relay, ATM, Fiber Cable, etc.

Layer 1 Physical RS232, 100BaseTX, ISDN, 11.

Differences between OSI & TCP/IP

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Here, are some important differences between the OSI & TCP/IP model:

OSI Model TCP/IP model

OSI model provides a clear TCP/IP doesn't offer any clear

distinction between interfaces, distinguishing points between
services, and protocols. services, interfaces, and protocols.

OSI uses the network layer to define TCP/IP uses only the Internet layer.
routing standards and protocols.

OSI model use two separate layers TCP/IP uses only one layer (link).
physical and data link to define the
functionality of the bottom layers

OSI model, the transport layer is A layer of the TCP/IP model is both
only connection-oriented. connection-oriented and
connectionless.

In OSI model, data link layer and In TCP data link layer and physical
physical are separate layers. layer are combined as a single
host-to-network layer.

The minimum size of the OSI header Minimum header size is 20 bytes.
is 5 bytes.

Advantages of the OSI Model

Here, are major benefits/pros of using the OSI model:

 It helps you to standardize router, switch, motherboard, and other hardware

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 Reduces complexity and standardizes interfaces

 Facilitates modular engineering
 Helps you to ensure interoperable technology
 Helps you to accelerate the evolution
 Protocols can be replaced by new protocols when technology changes.
 Provide support for connection-oriented services as well as connectionless
service.
 It is a standard model in computer networking.
 Supports connectionless and connection-oriented services.
 Offers flexibility to adapt to various types of protocols

Disadvantages of the OSI Model

Here are some cons/ drawbacks of using OSI Model:

 Fitting ofprotocols is a tedious task.

 You can only use it as a reference model.
 Doesn't define any specific protocol.
 In the OSI network layer model, some services are duplicated in many layers
such as the transport and data link layers
 Layers can't work in parallel as each layer need to wait to obtain data from the
previous layer.

Layer Name Function Protocols

Layer Application To allow access to network SMTP, HTTP,

7 resources. FTP, POP3,
SNMP

Layer Presentation To translate, encrypt and MPEG, ASCH,

6 compress data. SSL, TLS

Layer Session To establish, manage, and NetBIOS, SAP

5 terminate the session

Layer Transport The transport layer builds on the TCP, UDP

4 network layer to provide data
transport from a process on a
source machine to a process on a
destination machine.

Layer Network To provide internetworking To IPV5, IPV6,

3 move packets from source to ICMP, IPSEC,
destination ARP, MPLS.
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Layer Data Link To organize bits into frames To RAPA, PPP,

2 provide hop-to-hop delivery Frame Relay,
ATM, Fiber
Cable, etc.

Layer Physical To transmit bits over a medium RS232,

1 To provide mechanical and 100BaseTX,
electrical specifications ISDN, 11.

The TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP Model helps you to determine how a specific computer should be connected to
the internet and how data should be transmitted between them. It helps you to create a
virtual network when multiple computer networks are connected together. The purpose of
TCP/IP model is to allow communication over large distances.

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol. It is specifically

designed as a model to offer highly reliable and end-to-end byte stream over an unreliable
internetwork.

TCP Characteristics

Here, are the essential characteristics of TCP/IP protocol

 Support for a flexible architecture

 Adding more system to a network is easy.
 In TCP/IP, the network remains intact until the source, and destination machines
were functioning properly.
 TCP is a connection-oriented protocol.
 TCP offers reliability and ensures that data which arrives out of sequence should
put back into order.
 TCP allows you to implement flow control, so sender never overpowers a
receiver with data.

Four Layers of TCP/IP

The functionality of the TCP/IP model is divided into four layers, and each includes
specific protocols.

TCP/IP is a layered server architecture system in which each layer is defined according to
a specific function to perform. All these four layers work collaboratively to transmit the
data from one layer to another.

 Application Layer
 Transport Layer
 Internet Layer
 Network Interface
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Application Layer

Application layer interacts with an application program, which is the highest level of OSI
model. The application layer is the OSI layer, which is closest to the end-user. It means
the OSI application layer allows users to interact with other software application.

Application layer interacts with software applications to implement a communicating

component. The interpretation of data by the application program is always outside the
scope of the OSI model.

Example of the application layer is an application such as file transfer, email, remote
login, etc.

The functions of the Application Layers are:

 Application-layer helps you to identify communication partners, determining

resource availability, and synchronizing communication.
 It allows users to log on to a remote host
 This layer provides various e-mail services
 This application offers distributed database sources and access for global
information about various objects and services.

Transport Layer

Transport layer builds on the network layer in order to provide data

transport from a process on a source system machine to a process on a destination system.

It is hosted using single or multiple networks, and also maintains the quality of service
functions.

It determines how much data should be sent where and at what rate. This layer builds on
the message which are received from the application layer. It helps ensure that data units
are delivered error-free and in sequence.
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Transport layer helps you to control the reliability of a link through flow control, error
control, and segmentation or de-segmentation.

The transport layer also offers an acknowledgment of the successful data transmission
and sends the next data in case no errors occurred. TCP is the best-known example of the
transport layer.

Important functions of Transport Layers:

 It divides the message received from the session layer into segments and
numbers them to make a sequence.
 Transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process
on the destination machine.
 It also makes sure that the entire message arrives without any error else it should
be retransmitted.

Internet Layer

An internet layer is a second layer of the TCP/IP model. It is also known as a network
layer. The main work of this layer is to send the packets from any network, and any
computer still they reach the destination irrespective of the route they take.

The Internet layer offers the functional and procedural method for transferring variable
length data sequences from one node to another with the help of various networks.

Message delivery at the network layer does not give any guaranteed to be reliable
network layer protocol.

Layer-management protocols that belong to the network layer are:

1. Routing protocols
2. Multicast group management
3. Network-layer address assignment.

The Network Interface Layer

Network Interface Layer is this layer of the four-layer TCP/IP model. This layer is also
called a network access layer. It helps you to define details of how data should be sent
using the network.

It also includes how bits should optically be signaled by hardware devices which directly
interfaces with a network medium, like coaxial, optical, coaxial, fiber, or twisted-pair
cables.

A network layer is a combination of the data line and defined in the article of OSI
reference model. This layer defines how the data should be sent physically through the
network. This layer is responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices
on the same network.
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Differences between OSI and TCP/IP Models

Here, are some important differences between the OSI and TCP/IP model:

OSI Model TCP/IP model

It is developed by ISO (International It is developed by ARPANET

Standard Organization) (Advanced Research Project Agency
Network).

OSI model provides a clear TCP/IP doesn't have any clear

distinction between interfaces, distinguishing points between
services, and protocols. services, interfaces, and protocols.

OSI refers to Open Systems TCP refers to Transmission Control

Interconnection. Protocol.

OSI uses the network layer to define TCP/IP uses only the Internet layer.
routing standards and protocols.

OSI follows a vertical approach. TCP/IP follows a horizontal

approach.

OSI model use two separate layers TCP/IP uses only one layer (link).
physical and data link to define the
functionality of the bottom layers.

OSI layers have seven layers. TCP/IP has four layers.

OSI model, the transport layer is A layer of the TCP/IP model is both
connection-oriented and
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only connection-oriented. connectionless.

In the OSI model, the data link layer In TCP, physical and data link are
and physical are separate layers. both combined as a single
host-to-network layer.

Session and presentation layers are There is no session and presentation

not a part of the TCP model. layer in TCP model.

It is defined after the advent of the It is defined before the advent of the
Internet. internet.

The minimum size of the OSI header Minimum header size is 20 bytes.
is 5 bytes.

Most Common TCP/IP Protocols

Some widely used most common TCP/IP protocol are:

TCP:

Transmission Control Protocol is an internet protocol suite which breaks up the message
into TCP Segments and reassembling them at the receiving side.

IP:

An Internet Protocol address that is also known as an IP address is a numerical label. It is

assigned to each device that is connected to a computer network which uses the IP for
communication. Its routing function allows internetworking and essentially establishes
the Internet. Combination of IP with a TCP allows developing a virtual connection
between a destination and a source.

HTTP:

The Hypertext Transfer Protocol is a foundation of the World Wide Web. It is used for
transferring webpages and other such resources from the HTTP server or web server to
the web client or the HTTP client. Whenever you use a web browser like Google Chrome
or Firefox, you are using a web client. It helps HTTP to transfer web pages that you
request from the remote servers.

SMTP:

SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol supports the e-mail is
known as a simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol helps you to send the data to
another e-mail address.

SNMP:
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SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework which is used
for managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol.

DNS:

DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address that is used to identify the
connection of a host to the internet uniquely. However, users prefer to use names instead
of addresses for that DNS.

TELNET:

TELNET stands for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between the local
and remote computer. It established connection in such a manner that you can simulate
your local system at the remote system.

FTP:

FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. It is a mostly used standard protocol for
transmitting the files from one machine to another.

Advantages of TCP/IP

Here, are pros/benefits of using the TCP/IP model:

 It helps you to establish/set up a connection between different types of

computers.
 It operates independently of the operating system.
 It supports many routing-protocols.
 It enables the internetworking between the organizations.
 TCP/IP model has a highly scalable client-server architecture.
 It can be operated independently.
 Supports a number of routing protocols.
 It can be used to establish a connection between two computers.

Disadvantages of TCP/IP

Here, are few drawbacks of using the TCP/IP model:

 TCP/IP is a complicated model to set up and manage.

 The shallow/overhead of TCP/IP is higher-than IPX (Internetwork Packet
Exchange).
 In this, model the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.
 Replacing protocol in TCP/IP is not easy.
 It has no clear separation from its services, interfaces, and protocols.
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Mac address

MAC address is a unique identifier that is assigned to a NIC (Network Interface

Controller/ Card). It consists of a 48 bit or 64-bit address, which is associated with the
network adapter. MAC address can be in hexadecimal format. The full form of MAC
address is Media Access Control address. A MAC address is generally in six sets of
two-digits/characters that are separated by colons.

IP address
An IP address is an address that helps you to identify a network connection. It is termed
as the 'Logical Address,' which is provided to a connection in a network.
IP address helps you to control how devices on the Internet communicate and defines the
behavior of internet routers.
Key Differences

 MAC address is a unique hardware identification number that is assigned to a

NIC (Network Interface Controller/ Card), whereas the IP address is an address
that helps you to identify a network connection.
 MAC address is assigned by the manufacturer of the hardware interface while
the IP address is assigned by the network administrator or Internet Service
Provider (ISP).
 Mac address defines the devices identity, but IP address describes how the
devices are connected to the network.
 MAC addresses can be used for broadcasting, on the other hand, IP address can
be used for broadcasting or multicasting.
 The MAC address is implemented in the Data-Link layer of the OSI or TCP/IP
reference model. In contrast, the IP address is implemented in the Network layer
of the TCP/IP or OSI model.

Why need Mac address

Here are pros/benefits of using MAC address:

 It
provides a secure way to find senders or receivers in the network.
 MAC address helps you to prevent unwanted network access.
 MAC address is a unique number; hence it can be used to track the device.
 Wi-Fi networks at the airport use the MAC address of a specific device to
identify it.

Why need an IP address

Here the pros/benefits of using IP address:

 An IP address is assigned to every device on a network so that the device can be

located on that network.
 It helps you to develop a virtual connection between a destination and a source.
 IP address is one type of numerical label assigned to each device connected to a
computer network that uses the IP for communication.
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 It acts as an identifier for a specific machine on a particular network.

 It helps you to specify the technical format of the addressing and packaging
scheme.

Characteristic of mac address

Here, are some important characteristic of mac address:

 TCP/IP networks can use MAC addresses in the communication

 It helps you to Identify a specific NIC in a computer on a network
 Network devices cannot efficiently route traffic using MAC addresses
 Not provide information about physical or logical network configuration.

Characteristics of IP Address
Here, are an essential characteristic of IP address:

 IP address is a numeral label assigned to each device

 IP helps you to controls how devices on the Internet communicate and identifies
the behavior of internet routers.
 It is assigned by the network admin or internet service provider (ISP).
 It can be either 32-bit long (4 bytes) or 128-bits (16 bytes).

MAC Address and IP Address

Here are the main differences between MAC and IP address:

MAC Address IP Address

MAC address is a unique identifier An IP address is an address that

that is assigned to a Network helps you to identify a network
Interface Controller/ Card. connection.

The full form of MAC address is The full form of IP address is an

Media Access Control Address. Internet Protocol Address.

It is assigned by the manufacturer of It is assigned by the network

the interface hardware. administrator or internet service
provider (ISP).

Information is send by Ethernet Information is send by the Internet

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using the mac address. using the IP address.

The Mac filtering feature helps to The IP address does not have any
prevent security threats by hackers. specific filter.

Mac defines the device identify. IP address define how the device are
connected to the network.

Mac address is separated by colons. Ip address is separated by dots.

Mac address is hardware oriented. IP address is software oriented.

You can't hide the mac address from It is possible to hide IP addresses
the device. using the router or VPN.

The MAC addresses are not flexible The IP address is flexible. It gets
and not remains constant for a changed every time whenever it
device. connects to some other network.

Mac address helps you to identify IP address helps you to identify the
the device in the local network. device in the global network.

MAC addresses can be used for The IP address can be used for
broadcasting. broadcasting or multicasting.

The MAC address is implemented in The IP address is implemented in the

the Data-Link layer of the OSI or Network layer of the TCP/IP or OSI
TCP/IP reference model. model.

Mac address help to solve IP IP never addresses able to solve Mac

address issues. address issues.