Dynamical system

Vy
May 2025

1 Contents
1. Dynamics of particles

2. Dynamics of rigid bodies

3. Exercises

2 Dynamics of particles
2.1 Newton’s laws of motion
Many discussions in classical dynamics involves Newton’s 3 laws of motion, so
it is only fair we bring it up first thing in our discussion
• 1st law: A body moves with constant velocity (which may be zero) unless
acted on by a force.

• 2nd law: The acceleration of an object depends on the mass of the object
and the amount of force applied. aka F = ma as we all know.
• 3rd law: For every force on one body, there is an equal and opposite force
on another body.

2.2 Forces
2.2.1 Elastic force
Hooke’s law: The force needed to extend or compress a spring by some distance
scales linearly with respect to that distance. The magnitude of elastic force is
given by:
F = k∆l
However, when a spring is extended beyond a certain limit, it is deformed and
cannot recoil to its original length.

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2.2.2 Frictional and normal force
When a body rests or slides on a surface, we can think of the surface as exerting
a single contact force on the body, with force components perpendicular and
one parallel to the surface. The perpendicular component is normal force
(denoted as N). The parallel component is frictional force. As such, normal
and frictional force are always perpendicular to one another.
• Static friction:
fs ≤ µs N
In reality, static friction can take magnitude anywhere from 0 to µs N
• Kinetic friction is present when there is a relative motion. It acts in the
opposite direction that of the motion. The magnitude of kinetic friction
is given by:
fk = µk N
Unlike static friction, kinetic friction (is assumed) to take a constant value.

Example 1: A slab of mass m1 = 40.0 kg rests on a frictionless floor, and a

block of mass m2 = 10.0 kg rests on top of the slab. The coefficients of static
friction and kinetic friction between the block and the slab are µs = 0.600 and
µk = 0.400 respectively. The block is pulled by a horizontal force F. What is
the maximum value of F such that m1 and m2 will move together, that is, there
is no slipping between the two blocks? [73.5N]

2.2.3 Gravitational force

Newton’s law of gravitation states that:
GM1 M2
FG =
R2
where G = 6.67 × 10−11 (N.m2 /kg 2 ) is the gravitational constant, M1 and M2
are the masses of the two bodies, and R is the distance between the CM of the
two bodies.
A mass will always be a sink of gravitational field lines.

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2.2.4 Electric and magnetic force
The magnetic force acting on a test charge q moving with velocity v in a
region of magnetic field B is given by:

FB = qvB sin θ

The magnetic force acting on a straight wire of length l carrying a steady

current I put in a region of uniform magnetic field B is given by:

FB = BIl sin θ

Coulomb’s law of electrostatics states that:

kQ1 Q2
FE =
R2
where k = 8.99 × 109 N.m2 .C 2 is the electric constant, Q1 and Q2 are the mag-
nitude of charges, and R is the distance between the charges.
A positive charge is a source of electric field lines, while a negative charge is a
sink of electric field lines.

Example: Consider 5 protons as shown in the diagram.

One proton is at the center, X, of the regular pentagon while the remaining four
are the vertices. What is the magnitude and direction of the force acting on the
proton at X due to the other 4 protons? It is known that charge of a proton is
p = 1.60 × 10−19 C
[ 2.3 × 10−10 N, upwards ]

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2.2.5 Centripetal force in circular motion
The force acting on an object moving in circular motion is given by:

v2
Fc = m = mrω
r
where m is the object’s mass, v is the object’s velocity, r is the radius of the
circular path, and ω is the angular velocity of the mass.

Example (Satellite orbit): Given that Earth’s radius and mass are RE and mE
respectively and assume that the satellite is a point mass of mass m. The
satellite is orbiting Earth in a circular orbit of radius R. Assume that the only
force acting on the satellite is Earth’s gravitational attraction. What is the
speed at which the satellite is orbitingqEarth? How would that speed change if
GmE
the satellite was twice heavier? [v = R , no change]

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2.3 Using F=ma
For many dynamics problems, you should always go WTF (W is for weight, T
is for tension, and F is for friction). This works most of the time since these are
the most common mechanical forces in SJPO context. Some other forces that
you may encounter have been mentioned in the previous section: electrostatic,
centripetal, normal, etc. might also appear in the questions.

In tackling dynamics problems, drawing a free-body diagram (FBD) of the sys-

tem is highly recommended to better visualize the physical situation. Following
up, apply F=ma. Take note that since the force is a vector quantity, you should
always pay attention to the axis (for Cartesian coordinates Ix , Iy , Iz ) and direc-
tion (+ve or -ve) with which you are concerned.

Example 1: Mass M1 is held on a plane with inclination angle θ, and mass

M2 hangs over the side. The two masses are connected by a massless string
which runs over a massless pulley (see figure below). The coefficient of kinetic
friction between M1 and the plane is µ. M1 is released from rest. Assuming
that M2 is sufficiently large so that M1 gets pulled up the plane, (a) what is the
acceleration of the masses? (b) What is the tension in the string?
[(a) g(M2 −µM 1 cosθ−M1 sinθ)
M1 +M2 , (b) M1 M2 g(1+µcosθ+sinθ)
M1 +M2 ]

2.4 Energy and power

Gravitation potential energy is given by:
GM1 M2
U =−
R

Elastic potential energy

Work done of a force at an angle θ on an object to move it:

W D = F d sin θ

Conservation of energy: The mechanical energy of a particle stays constant

unless forces outside the system or non-conservative forces do work on it.

∆K + ∆U + ∆Uint = 0

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Work - Energy Theorem: The change in the particle’s kinetic energy be-
tween points x1 and x2 equals the work done on the particle between x1 and x2

Worked example 1: A simple pendulum, consisting of a string tied to a

frictionless fixed pivot at one end and a bob of mass m at the other end, is
gently released from the horizontal position (i.e. θ = 90) as shown below.
(a) What is the tension in the string after releasing? [3mg cos θ]
(b) In order for the string to not break, what is the minimum force it needs to
withstand? [3mg]

Solution: First, let’s draw a FBD of the mass when it is at an angle θ from
the vertical

(a) The bob is at the same distance away from the pivot throughout its
motion. Hence, we can write the following equation:

v2
T − mg cos θ = ma = m
L
Hence,
v2
T = mg cos θ + m
L
Total energy:
1
mgL = mgL(1 − cos θ) + mv 2
2
1
mgL cos θ = mv 2
2

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 v 2 = 2mg cos θ
Hence,
T = mg cos θ + 2mg cos θ = 3mg cos θ
(b) We have
T = 3mg cos θ ≤ 3mg

The equality sign is attained when θ = 90

Example 1: A proton (charge = 1.6 × 10−19 C) moves at 2.0 × 106 m/s per-
pendicular to a magnetic field of 0.3 T.
(a) Calculate the magnetic force on the proton.
(b) Find the radius of the circular path if the proton moves in a uniform mag-
netic field.
Mass of proton = 1.67 × 10−27 kg
[ (a) 9.6 × 10−14 N; (b) 0.0698 m ]

2.5 Impulse and momentum

Impulse-Momentum Theorem: Impulse, or the force applied on an object
over a period of time, is equal to change in its momentum. Or mathematically,
J = ∆P = Fnet ∆t
Conservation of linear momentum: When net external force acting on the
system is 0, total linear momentum is conserved.
Coefficient of restitution (CoR, denoted as ϵ) is given by:
speed of separation v1 − v2
ϵ= =
speed of approach u2 − u1
In elastic collision, ϵ = 1. In inelastic collision, 0 < ϵ < 1
Center of mass is given by:
P
mi xi
xCM = Pi
i mi
P
mi yi
yCM = Pi
mi
P i
mi zi
zCM = Pi
i mi

Example: A 0.25 kg ball is dropped from 2.0 m and bounces back to a height
of 1.6 m. The contact time with the ground is 0.02 s.
(a) Calculate the velocity just before and just after the bounce.
(b) Determine the change in momentum.
(c) Find the average force exerted by the ground.
[ (a) before: 6.26 m/s, after: 5.60 m/s; (b) 2.97 kg.m/s; (c) 148.5 N ]

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3 Dynamics of rigid bodies
3.1 Quantities and notations

Position (x) Angular position (θ)

Displacement (∆θ) Angular displacement (∆θ)
Velocity (v) Angular velocity (ω)
Acceleration (a) Angular acceleration (α)
Force (F) Torque (τ )
Mass (m) Moment of inertia (I)
Momentum (p) Angular momentum (L)

Table 1: Quantities and their rotational equivalence

3.2 Moment of inertia

Moment of inertia (MOI) is the rotational equivalent of mass. MOI of a
rigid body can be obtained by multiplying the mass of each particle by the
square of its distance from the axis of rotation and adding these products.
Mathematically,
X
I = m1 d21 + m2 d22 + ... = mi d2i
i

We can see that MOI of a body depends on its mass and mass distribution about
the rotational axis. Specifically, between 2 bodies of the same shape and mass,
different mass distributions result in different MOIs. Or between 2 identical
bodies, different axes also result in different MOI. For example, a hollow sphere
and a solid sphere of the same mass would have different MOIs.

Or the same rod can have different MOIs about different axes (because of the
different mass distributions).

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3.3 Torque
Like Newton’s equation of motion, for rotational dynamics, we have Euler’s
rotation equation:
τnet = Iα
Similar to the previous section, FBD can be of great help in solving dynamics
problems involving rigid bodies. However, now you need to take into account
point of contact, as the distance from the point of contact to the origin will affect
magnitude of torque. Let us revisit our WTF scheme. Weight, or gravitational
force, acts on the center of mass (COM) of the body, while Tension acts at the
point where a string is attached to the body and Friction acts on the point of
contact with the rough surface.

For a force F acting at a distance R away from the axis and an angle θ from the
axis (see figure)

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 the torque is given by:
τ = F r sin θ
Example 1: You are trying to raise a bicycle wheel of mass m and radius R
up over a curb of height h. To do this, you apply a horizontal force (see figure
below). What is the smallest magnitude of the force that will succeed in raising
the wheel onto the curb when the force is applied
(a) at the center of the wheel and
(b) at the top of the wheel?
(c) In which case is less force required?
[ F= mg(R−h)
√
R2 −h2
, F = mg(R−h)
2R−h , At top of the wheel ]

3.4 Angular momentum

Take note that a moving point mass can also have angular momentum with
respect to a rotation axis. Angular momentum of a point mass:

I = mvr

Angular momentum of a rigid body is given by:

L = rCM pCM + ICM ω

Specifically for rotation with a fixed center of rotation (CoR):

L = ICoR ω

Conservation of Angular Momentum: When net external torque is zero,

total angular momentum of the system is conserved.
Angular impulse:
J = τ.∆t

Example 1: A person of mass 50 kg stands on the edge of a frictionless turntable

(mass = 100 kg, radius = 2.0 m) rotating at 1.5 rad/s. The person slowly walks
toward the center of the turntable.
(a) What happens to the angular velocity of the system as the person walks

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inward?
(b) If the person reaches the center, what is the new angular velocity?
[ 3.0 rad/s ]

Example 2: A dumbbell consists of two 0.5 kg masses at either end of a

1.2 m light rod. It rotates horizontally about its center at 6.0 rad/s. One mass
slides inward to 0.2 m from the center (frictionless track).
What is the new angular speed after the mass moves inward?
[ 10.8 rad/s]

3.5 Rotational energy

Rotational KE:
1 2
KErot = Iω
2

As such total KE is given by:

1 1
KEtot = KEtrans + KErot = mv 2 + Iω 2
2 2
Rotational WD:
W = τ.∆θ
Example: A solid cylinder of mass 3.0 kg and radius 0.2 m rolls without
slipping down a 1.5 m high ramp. Given the MOI of a solid cylinder about the
axis through the center perpendicular to its bases is: I = 21 M R2
(a) Calculate the total kinetic energy of the cylinder at the bottom.
(b) Find the linear speed of the cylinder at the bottom.
[ (a) 44.1 J; (b) 4.43 m/s ]

4 Exercises
Question 1: A car of weight W rests on a slanted ramp attached to a trailer
. Only a cable running from the trailer to the car prevents the car from rolling
off the ramp. (The car’s brakes are off and its transmission is in neutral.) Find
the tension in the cable and the force that the ramp exerts on the car’s tires.
Question 2: The “Giant Swing” at a county fair consists of a vertical central
shaft with a number of horizontal arms attached at its upper end. Each arm
supports a seat suspended from a cable 5.00 m long, the upper end of the cable
being fastened to the arm at a point 3.00 m from the central shaft.
(a) Find the time of one revolution of the swing if the cable supporting a seat
makes an angle of 30 with the vertical.
b) Does the angle depend on the weight of the passenger for a given rate of
revolution?

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5 References
1. University Physics 13th - Young and Freedman
2. Introduction to Classical Mechanics - David Morin

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