Module 1

Fluid mechanics is a branch of science which deals with the behaviour of the fluids (liquids or gases) at
rest as well as in motion. The study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics. The study of fluids in motion
where pressure forces are not considered is called fluid kinematics and if the pressure forces are
considered for fluids in motion, that branch of science is called fluid dynamics.
PROPERTIES OF FLUID
1. Density or Mass Density: The density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the mass of the
fluid to its volume and is denoted by ρ.
The unit of mass density is Kg/m3
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝜌=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
The value of density of water is 1000Kg/m3.
Mass of fluid Volume of fluid
2. Specific weight or Specific density: It is the ratio between the weights of the fluid to its volume. The
weight per unit volume of the fluid is called weight density and it is denoted by w.
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑥 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚 𝑥 𝑎
𝑤= = = = 𝜌𝑔
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑣
3. Specific volume: It is defined as the volume of the fluid occupied by a unit mass or volume per unit mass
of fluid is called Specific volume.
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 1
𝑆𝑝. 𝑣𝑜𝑙 = = = 𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝜌
4. Specific Gravity: It is defined as the ratio of the Weight density (or density) of a fluid to the Weight density
(or density) of a standard fluid. For liquids the standard fluid taken is water and for gases the standard
liquid taken is air. The Specific gravity is also called relative density. It is a dimension less quantity and it
is denoted by ѕ.

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑

𝑆 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑠) =
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠

𝑆 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠) =
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟

Weight density of liquid = S × weight density of water = S ×1000 × 9.81 N/ m 3

Density of liquid= S × density of water = S × 1000 Kg/ m3.

5. Viscosity: It is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one layer of
the fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid. When the two layers of a fluid, at a distance ‘dy’ apart,
move one over the other at different velocities, say u and u+du, causes a shear stress acting between the
fluid layers.
The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower layer while the lower layer causes a shear stress
on the adjacent top layer.
This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of velocity with respect to y. it is denoted by symbol
τ (tau)
 𝑑𝑢
𝜏𝛼
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
Where μ is the constant of proportionality and is known as the co-efficient of dynamic viscosity or
only viscosity. (du/dy) represents the rate of shear strain or rate of shear deformation or velocity
gradient.
From the above equation, we have
𝜏
𝜇=
𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑦

Thus, viscosity is also defined as the shear stress required to produce unit rate of shear strain. The unit
of viscosity in CGS is called poise.
1poise = 0.1 Pa.s = 0.1 Ns/m2
KINEMATIC VISCOSITY: It is defined as the ratio between dynamic viscosity and density of fluid. It is
denoted by symbol 𝜗 (nu). The unit of kinematic viscosity in CGS is called stoke.

𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜇
𝜗= =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌
The unit of kinematic viscosity is m2 /sec
Thus, one stoke =1 cm2/sec = 10-4 m2/sec

2. Illustrate the concept of viscosity with a clear diagram and describe the law that governs it.

NEWTONS LAW OF VISCOSITY: It states that the shear stress (τ) on a fluid element layer is directly
proportional to the rate of shear strain. The constant of proportionality is called the co- efficient of
viscosity. It is expressed as:
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦

Fluids which obey above relation are known as NEWTONIAN fluids and fluids which do not obey the
above relation are called NON-NEWTONIAN fluids.

3. Classify fluids, explain their behavior using stress vs. strain graphs, and support with real-world
examples.
TYPES OF FLUIDS:
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The fluids may be classified into the following five types.
1. Ideal fluid 2. Real fluid 3. Newtonian fluid 4. Non-Newtonian fluid 5. Ideal plastic fluid

1. Ideal fluid: A fluid which is compressible and is having no viscosity is known as ideal fluid. It is only
an imaginary fluid as all fluids have some viscosity.

2. Real fluid: A fluid possessing a viscosity is known as real fluid. All fluids in actual practice are real
fluids.

3. Newtonian fluid: A real fluid, in which the stress is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain, is
known as Newtonian fluid.

4. Non-Newtonian fluid: A real fluid in which shear stress is not Proportional to the rate of shear strain
is known as Non-Newtonian fluid. Eg. Toothpaste, blood, ketchup

5. Ideal plastic fluid: A fluid, in which shear stress is more than the yield value and shear stress is
proportional to the rate of shear strain is known as ideal plastic fluid. Eg. flyash

4. Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of one litre of petrol of specific gravity = 0.7

Sol:
i. Density of a liquid = S × Density of water = S x 1000 kg/ m3
𝜌= 0.7 × 1000 𝜌 = 700Kg/m3

ii. Specific weight w = 𝜌 × g = 700 × 9.81 = 6867 N/ m3

iii. Weight (w) Volume = 1 litre = 1 × 1000 cm3 = 1000 m3 = 0.001 m3

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
We know that, 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑤 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

Weight of petrol = specific weight x volume of petrol = 6867 × 0.001 = 6.867 N

5. Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of one litre of petrol used in automobiles having
specific gravity of 0.85

i. Density of a liquid = S × Density of water = S x 1000 kg/ m3

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 𝜌= 0.85 × 1000 𝜌 = 850 Kg/m3

ii. Specific weight w = 𝜌 × g = 850 × 9.81 = 8338.5 N/ m3

iii. Weight (w) Volume = 1 litre = 1 × 1000 cm3 = 1000 m3 = 0.001 m3

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
We know that, 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑤 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

Weight of petrol = specific weight x volume of petrol = 8338.5 × 0.001 = 8.3385 N

6. In a bearing lubrication system two horizontal plates are used which are 1.25 cm apart, the space
between them being filled with oil of viscosity 14 poises. Calculate shear stress in oil, if the upper
plate is moved with a velocity of 2.5 m/sec and lower plate is stationary
Sol:
Given distance between the plates dy= 1.25 cm = 0.0125m
Viscosity μ = 14 poise = 14/10 =1.4 N s/m2
Velocity of upper plate u = 2.5 m/sec

𝑑𝑢 2.5
Shear stress 𝜏 = 𝜇 (𝑑𝑦) = 1.4 (0.0125) = 280 𝑁/𝑚2

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7. If the velocity distribution over a plate is given by 𝑢 = 3 𝑦 − 𝑦 2 in which u is the velocity in m/s at a
distance y metres above the plate. Determine the shear stress at y=0 and y=0.15m. Take dynamic
viscosity of fluid as 8.63 poise.
Soln.
2 𝑑𝑢 2
Given 𝑢 = 3 𝑦 − 𝑦 2 therefore = 3 − 2𝑦
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢 2 2
( ) = − 2(0) = = 0.667
𝑑𝑦𝑎𝑡 𝑦=0 3 3

𝑑𝑢 2
( ) = − 2(0.15) = 0.367
𝑑𝑦𝑎𝑡 𝑦=0.15 3

μ = 8.63 poise = 8.63/10 = 0.863 Ns/m2

𝑑𝑢
i) Shear stress at y=0 is 𝜏 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑦 = 0.863 ∗ 0.667 = 0.5756 𝑁/𝑚2
𝑑𝑢
ii) Shear stress at y=0 is 𝜏 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑦 = 0.863 ∗ 0.367 = 0.3167 𝑁/𝑚2
8. Consider a case of journal bearing where a plate 0.025 mm distant from the fixed plate moves at 60
cm/s and requires a force of 2 N/m2 to maintain this speed. Determine the fluid viscosity between
the plates.
Given distance between the plates dy = 0.025mm = 0.025 x 10-3 m
Velocity of upper plate u = 60 cm/s = 0.6 m/s

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 du = 0.6 – 0 = 0.6 m/s
τ = 2 N/m2
𝑑𝑢 0.6 −3
2𝑥0.025𝑥10
𝜏=𝜇 2=𝜇 𝜇= = 8.33𝑥10−5 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠
𝑑𝑦 0.025𝑥10−3 0.6

9. In an engine lubrication and bearing design a flat plate of area 1.5 x 10 6 mm2 is pulled with a speed
of 0.4 m/s relative to another plate located at 0.15 mm from it. Find the force and power required
to maintain this speed. If the fluid separating them is having viscosity as 1 poise.
Soln:
Area of the plate A = 1.5 x 106 mm2 = 1.5 x 106 x 10-6 = 1.5 m2
du = 0.4 m/s
dy = 0.15 mm = 0.15 x 10-3 m
viscosity = µ = 1 poise = 1/10 pa.s = 0.1 pa.s
𝑑𝑢 0.4
𝜏 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑦 = 0.1 0.15𝑥10−3 = 266.66 𝑁/𝑚2

F = τ x A = 266.66 x 1.5 = 400 N

Power required to move the plate at the speed of 0.4 m/s = F x u = 400 x 0.4 = 160 W
10. Dynamic viscosity of oil used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve is 6 poise. The shaft dia is
0.4m and rotates at 190 rpm. Calculate the power lost in the bearing for a sleeve length of 90 mm.
The thickness of the foil film is 1.5 mm.

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11. Analyze the forces acting on a liquid bubble and a soap bubble and derive the expressions
representing these forces.

SURFACE TENSION:
Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact with a gas or
on the surface between two immiscible liquids such that the contact surface behaves like a membrane
under tension. It is denoted by σ (sigma). In MKS units it is expressed as Kg f/m while in SI units as N/m.

Surface Tension on Liquid Droplet:

Consider a small spherical droplet of a liquid of radius ‘r’. On the entire surface of the droplet, the
tensile force due to surface tension will be acting
Let σ = surface tension of the liquid
p= pressure intensity inside the droplet (In excess of outside pressure intensity) d= Diameter of droplet
Let, the droplet is cut in to two halves. The forces acting on one half (say left half) will be
i) Tensile force due to surface tension acting around the circumference of the cut portion
= σ ×circumference = σ × 𝜋d
ii) Pressure force on the area = p × 𝜋 d2 /4

These two forces will be equal to and opposite under equilibrium conditions i.e.
σ × 𝜋d = p × 𝜋 d2 /4
𝟒𝝈
𝒑=
𝒅

Surface Tension on a Hollow Bubble:

A hollow bubble like a soap bubble in air has two surfaces in contact with air, one inside and other
outside. Thus, two surfaces are subjected to surface tension.
2(σ × 𝜋d) = p × 𝜋 d2 /4
𝟖𝝈
𝒑=
𝒅

Surface tension on a liquid jet:

Consider a liquid jet of diameter ‘d’ length ‘L’
Let, p = pressure intensity inside the liquid jet above the outside pressure
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σ = surface tension of the liquid
Consider the equilibrium of the semi- jet
Force due to pressure = p × area of the semi-jet = p × L × d
Force due to surface tension = σ × 2L
Equating the forces p × L × d = σ× 2L,
𝟐𝝈
𝒑=
𝒅

12. Explain the phenomenon of capillarity with real-world examples, such as the rise of water in plants
or the movement of ink in a pen, and derive the expression for the rise or fall of a liquid in a
capillary tube

CAPILLARITY
Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid surface in a small tube relative to the
adjacent general level of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the liquid. The rise of liquid surface is
known as capillary rise, while the fall of the liquid surface is known as capillary depression. It is expressed
in terms of ‘cm’ or ‘mm’ of liquid. Its value depends upon the specific weight of the liquid, diameter of
the tube and surface tension of the liquid.

EXPRESSION FOR CAPILLARY RISE:

Consider a glass tube of small diameter ‘d’ opened at both ends and is inserted in a liquid; the liquid will
rise in the tube above the level of the liquid outside the
tube.
Let ‘h’ be the height of the liquid in the tube. Under a state of equilibrium, the weight of the liquid of
height ‘h’ is balanced by the force at the surface of the liquid in the tube. But, the force at the surface
of the liquid in the tube is due to surface tension.
Let σ = surface tension of liquid
Ѳ = Angle of contact between the liquid and glass tube
The weight of the liquid of height ‘h’ in the tube = (area of the tube × h) × 𝜌 × g = 𝜋 d2/4 × h × 𝜌 × g
Where ‘𝜌′ is the density of the liquid.
The vertical component of the surface tensile force = (σ× circumference) × cosѲ = σ × 𝜋d × cosѲ
For equilibrium, 𝜋 d2/4 × h × 𝜌 × g = σ 𝜋d cosѲ,
𝟒𝝈
𝒉=
𝝆𝒈𝒅
The value of Ѳ between water and clean water tube is equal to zero and hence cosѲ is 1.

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 Capillary rise and capillary fall
Expression for capillary fall:
If the glass tube is dipped in mercury, the Level of mercury in the tube will be lower than the general
level of the outside liquid.
Let, h = height of the depression in the tube. Then, in equilibrium, two forces are acting on the mercury
inside the tube.
First one is due to the surface tension acting in the downward direction = σ × 𝜋𝑑 × cos 𝜃
The second force is due to hydrostatic force acting upward and is equal to intensity of pressure at a
depth ‘h’ × area = pA = 𝜌gh x 𝜋 d2/4
Equating the two we get,
𝟒𝝈𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝒉=
𝝆𝒈𝒅

The value of 𝜃 for mercury and glass tube is 128°.

13. Analyze the phenomenon of vapour pressure and cavitation, incorporating real-world examples to
illustrate your explanation.
VAPOUR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION
A change from the liquid state to the gaseous state is known as Vaporization. The vaporization (which
depends upon the prevailing pressure and temperature condition) occurs because of continuous
escaping of the molecules through the free liquid surface.
Consider a liquid at a temp. of 20℃ and at atmospheric pressure is confined in a closed vessel. This liquid
will vaporize at 100℃. During vaporization, the molecules escape from the free surface of the liquid and
get accumulated in the space between the free liquid surface and top of the vessel. These accumulated
vapours exert a pressure on the liquid surface. This pressure is known as vapour pressure of the liquid,
or this is the pressure at which the liquid is converted into vapours.

Consider the same liquid at 20℃ at atmospheric pressure in the closed vessel and the pressure above
the liquid surface is reduced by some means; the boiling temperature will also reduce. If the pressure is
reduced to such an extent that it becomes equal to or less than the vapour pressure, the boiling of the
liquid will start, though the temperature of the liquid is 20°C. Thus, the liquid may boil at the ordinary
temperature, if the pressure above the liquid surface is reduced so as to be equal or less than the vapour
pressure of the liquid at that temperature.

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Now, consider a flowing system, if the pressure at any point in this flowing liquid becomes equal to or
less than the vapour pressure, the vapourisation of the liquid starts. The bubbles of these vapours are
carried by the flowing liquid into the region of high pressure where they collapse, giving rise to impact
pressure. The pressure developed by the collapsing bubbles is so high that the material from the
adjoining boundaries gets eroded and cavities are formed on them. This phenomenon is known as

CAVITATION.

Hence the cavitation is the phenomenon of formation of vapour bubbles of a flowing liquid in a region
where the pressure of the liquid falls below the vapour pressure and sudden collapsing of these vapour
bubbles in a region of high pressure. When the vapour bubbles collapse, a very high pressure is created.
The metallic surface, above which the liquid is flowing, is subjected to these high pressures, which cause
pitting actions on the surface. Thus, cavities are formed on the metallic surface and hence the name is
cavitation.

14. Discuss various pressures associated with any system with the help of a neat sketch.
ABSOLUTE, GAUGE, ATMOSPHERIC and VACCUM PRESSURES
The pressure on a fluid is measured in two different systems. In one system, it is measured above the
absolute zero or complete vacuum and it is called the Absolute pressure and in other system, pressure
is measured above the atmospheric pressure and is called Gauge pressure.
1. Absolute pressure: It is defined as the pressure which is measured with reference to absolute vacuum
pressure
2. Gauge pressure: It is defined as the pressure, which is measured with the help of a pressure measuring
instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as datum. The atmospheric on the scale is
marked as zero.
3. Vacuum pressure: It is defined as the pressure below the atmospheric pressure
i) Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure+ gauge pressure pab = patm + pgauge
ii) Vacuum pressure = Atmospheric pressure - Absolute pressure

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15. The surface tension of water in contact with air at 20°C is 0.0725 N/m. The pressure inside a droplet
of water is to be 0.02 N/cm2 greater than the outside pressure. Calculate the diameter of the droplet
of water.

16. Calculate the surface tension in a soap bubble of 40 mm diameter when the inside pressure is 2.5
N/m2 above the atmospheric pressure.

17. The pressure outside the droplet of water of diameter 0.04 mm is 10.32 N/cm 2 (atmospheric
pressure). Calculate the pressure within the droplet if the surface tension is given as 0.0725 N/m of
water.

18. Calculate the capillary rise or fall in a glass tube of 2.5 mm diameter when immersed vertically in a)
water and b) mercury. Take surface tensions σ = 0.0725 N/m for water and σ = 0.52 N/m for mercury
in contact with air. The specific gravity for mercury is given as 13.6 and angle of contact = 130°.

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19. Calculate the capillary height in millimeters in a glass tube of 4 mm diameter, when immersed in i)
water and ii) mercury. The temperature of the liquid is 20°C and the values of the surface tension of
water and mercury at 20°C in contact with air are 0.073575 N/m and 0.51 N/m respectively. The
angle of contact for water is zero and that for mercury is 130°. Take density of water at 20°C equal
to 998 kg/m3.

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