EAST WEST INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

# 63, Off Magadi Main Road, Bangalore – 560091

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

III Sem

SENSORS AND INSTRUMENTATION BEC306B

MODULE-1

SENSORS & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

SENSORS & SIGNAL CONDITIONING MODULE-1

MODULE-1

INTRODUCTION TO SENSOR-BASED MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

STRUCTURE:

➢ General concepts and terminology

➢ sensor classification, primary sensors
➢ material for sensors
➢ microsensor technology

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INTRODUCTION

Sensors enable measurements because they yield electric signals with embedded information
about the measurand. Electronic circuits process those signals in order to extract that
information. Hence, sensors are the basis of measurement systems.

the basics of sensors, their static and dynamic characteristics, primary sensors for common
quantities, and sensor materials and technology.

1.1 GENERAL CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY

Measurement Systems

A system is a combination of two or more elements, subsystems, and parts necessary to carry
out one or more functions.

The function of a measurement system is the objective and empirical assignment of a number
to a property or quality of an object or event in order to describe it. That is, the result of a
measurement must be independent of the observer (objective) and experimentally based
(empirical).

For example, if a given object has a property larger than the same property in another object,
the numerical result when measuring the first object must exceed that when measuring the
second object. One objective of a measurement can be process monitoring: for example,
ambient temperature measurement, gas and water volume measurement, and clinical
monitoring.

Another objective can be process control: for example, for temperature or level control in a
tank. Another objective could be to assist experimental engineering: for example, to study
temperature distribution inside an irregularly shaped object or to determine force distribution
on a dummy driver in a car crash.

Figure 1.1 shows the functions and dataflow of a measurement and control system. In
general, in addition to the acquisition of information carried out by a sensor, a measurement
requires the processing of that information and the presentation of the result in order to make
it perceptible to human senses. Any of these functions can be local or remote, but remote
functions require information transmission. Modern measurement systems are not physically
arranged according to the dataflow in Figure 1.1 but are instead arranged according to their
connection to the digital bus communicating deferent subsystems

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Figure 1.1 Functions and data ¯ow in a measurement and control system. Sensors and
actuators are transducers at the physical interface between electronic systems and processes
or experiments.

1.2 SENSOR CLASSIFICATION

A great number of sensors are available for different physical quantities. In order to study
them, the sensors are classified according three primary criterion as follows.

In considering the need for a power supply, sensors are classified as modulating or self
generating.

➢ In modulating (or active) sensors, most of the output signal power comes from an
auxiliary power source. The input only controls the output. Conversely, in self
generating (or passive) sensors, output power comes from the input.
➢ Modulating sensors usually require more wires than self-generating sensors, because
wires different from the signal wires supply power.
➢ The presence of an auxiliary power source can increase the danger of explosion in
explosive atmospheres.
➢ Modulating sensors have the advantage that the power supply voltage can modify
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their overall sensitivity. Some authors use the terms active for self-generating and
passive for modulating.

In considering output signals, we classify sensors as analog or digital.

➢ In analog sensors the output changes in a continuous way at a macroscopic level. The
information is usually obtained from the amplitude, although sensors with output in
the time domain are usually considered as analog.
➢ The output of digital sensors takes the form of discrete steps or states. Digital sensors
do not require an Analog to Digital Converter, and their output is easier to transmit
than that of analog sensors.
➢ Digital output is also more repeatable and reliable and often more accurate. But
regrettably, digital sensors cannot measure many physical quantities.

In considering the operating mode, sensors are classified in terms of their function in a
deflection or a null mode.

➢ In deflection sensors the measured quantity produces a physical effect that generates
in some part of the instrument a similar but opposing effect that is related to some
useful variable.
➢ Null-type sensors attempt to prevent deflection from the null point by applying a
known effect that opposes that produced by the quantity being measured. There is an
imbalance detector and some means to restore balance

1.3 PRIMARY SENSORS

The primary transducer or sensor is the element that is in contact with the pressure pulse, and
generally is a displacement transducer, which transduces the pressure wave into a mechanical
displacement.
Primary sensors convert measurands from physical quantities to other forms. We classify
primary sensors here according to the measurand. Devices that have direct electric output are
plain sensors.
Types of Primary sensors:
1. Temperature sensors: Bimetals
2. Pressure sensors
3. Flow velocity and flow-rate sensors,
4. Level sensors,
5. Force and torque sensors,
6. Acceleration and inclination sensors,
7. Velocity sensors,

1.3.1 Temperature sensors: Bimetals

Temperature conveys the state of a mechanical system in terms of expansion or contraction of

solids, liquids or gases, change in electrical resistance of conductors, semiconductors and

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thermoelectric emfs. Temperature sensors such as bimetallic strips, thermocouples,

thermistors are widely used in monitoring of manufacturing processes such as casting,
molding, metal cutting etc. The construction details and principle of working of some of the
temperature sensors are discussed in following sections.

Bimetallic strips are used as thermal switch in controlling the temperature or heat in a
manufacturing process or system. It contains two different metal strips bonded together. The
metals have different coefficients of expansion. On heating the strips bend into curved strips
with the metal with higher coefficient of expansion on the outside of the curve. Figure.1.3.1
shows a typical arrangement of a bimetallic strip used with a setting-up magnet. As the strips
bend, the soft iron comes in closer proximity of the small magnet and further touches. Then
the electric circuit completes and generates an alarm. In this way bimetallic strips help to
protect the desired application from heating above the pre-set value of temperature.

Figure 1.3.1 A bimetal consists of two metals with dissimilar thermal expansion coefficients,
which deforms when temperature changes.

If the metals have similar moduli of elasticity and thicknesses, the radius of curvature r, when
changing from temperature T1 to T2,

where t is the total thickness of the piece and where αA and αB

are the respective thermal expansion coefficients. Therefore, the radius of curvature is
inversely proportional to the temperature difference.

Bimetal strips are also used as actuators to directly open or close contacts (thermostats, on-off
controls, starters fluorescent lamps) and for overcurrent protection in electric circuits: The
current along the bimetal heats it by Joule effect until reaching a temperature high enough to
exert a mechanical force on a trigger device that opens the circuit and interrupts the current.

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1.3.2 Pressure Sensors

A pressure sensor is a device for pressure measurement of gases or liquids. Pressure is an
expression of the force required to stop a fluid from expanding, and is usually stated in terms
of force per unit area. A pressure sensor usually acts as a transducer; it generates a signal as a
function of the pressure imposed.
Pressure sensors are used for control and monitoring in thousands of everyday applications.
Pressure sensors can also be used to indirectly measure other variables such as fluid/gas flow,
speed, water level, and altitude. Pressure sensors can alternatively be called pressure
transducers, pressure transmitters, pressure senders, pressure indicators, piezometers and
manometers, among other names.
Blood pressure measurement is very common for patient diagnosis and monitoring..
Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two measurement points. Gage
pressure is measured relative to ambient temperature. Absolute pressure is measured relative
to a perfect vacuum. To measure a pressure, it is either compared with a known force or its
effect on an elastic element is measured.

Liquid-column U-tube manometer

The simplest form of manometer consists of a U-shaped glass tube containing liquid. It is
used to measure gauge pressure and are the primary instruments used in the workshop for
calibration.

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The principle of the manometer is that the pressure to be measured is applied to one side of
the tube producing a movement of liquid, as shown in figure above. It can be seen that the
level of the filling liquid in the leg where the pressure is applied, i.e. the left leg of the tube,
has dropped, while that in the right hand leg as risen. A scale is fitted between the tubes to
enable us to measure this displacement.
Let us assume that the pressure we are measuring and have applied to the left hand side of the
manometer is of constant value. The liquid will only stop moving when the pressure exerted
by the column of liquid, h is sufficient to balance the pressure applied to the left side of the
manometer, i.e. when the head pressure produced by column” h” is equal to the pressure to be
measured.
Knowing the length of the column of the liquid, H, and density of the filling liquid, we can
calculate the value of the applied pressure.
Figure 1.3.2 a compares the pressure to be measured with a
reference pressure and yields a difference h of liquid level.

where ρ is the density of the liquid and

g is the acceleration of gravity. A
level sensor (photoelectric, float, etc.) yields an electric output
signal.
Typical filling liquids commonly used in manometers and their densities.
1. Water ( ρ = 1000 kg m-3 )
2. Oil ( ρ can be between 800 and 950 kg m-3 )
3. Mercury ( ρ = 13560 kg m-3 )
C-shaped Bourdon tube.
Bourdon tubes are radially formed tubes with an oval cross-section. The pressure of the
measuring medium acts on the inside of the tube and produces a motion in the non-clamped
end of the tube. This motion is the measure of the pressure and is indicated via the
movement.
It is basically consisted of a C-shaped hollow tube, whose one end is fixed and connected to
the pressure tapping, the other end free, as shown in fig. The
cross section of the tube is elliptical.

When pressure is applied, the elliptical tube (Bourdon tube)

tries to acquire a circular cross section; as a result, stress is
developed and the tube tries to straighten up. Thus the free end
of the tube moves up, depending on magnitude of pressure. A
deflecting and indicating mechanism is attached to the free
end that rotates the pointer and indicates the Pressure reading.
The materials used are commonly Phosphor Bronze, Brass and
Beryllium Copper. For a 2″ overall diameter of the C-tube the

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useful travel of the free end is approximately 1/8″ . Though the C-type tubes are most
common, other shapes of tubes, such as helical, twisted or spiral tubes are also in use.

The main advantage with the Bourdon tube is that it has a wide operating (depending on the
tube material). This type of pressure measurement can be used for positive or negative
pressure ranges, although the accuracy is impaired when in a vacuum.

Twisted Bourdon tube.

Helical is a bourdon tube wound in the form of helix. It

allows the tip movement to be converted to a circular
motion.

By installing a central shaft inside the helix along its

axis and connecting it to the tip, the tip movement
become a circular motion of the shaft.

Diaphragm

Diaphragm pressure gauges are used to measure gases and liquids. They cover measuring
spans from 10 mbar to 40 bar. The measuring element consists of one circular diaphragm
clamped between a pair of flanges. The positive or negative pressure acting on these
diaphragms causes deformation of the measuring element. The magnitude of the deformation
is proportional to the pressure to be measured, and it is coupled to the pointer mechanism.

A diaphragm is a flexible circular plate consisting

of a taut membrane or a clamped sheet that strains
under the action of the pressure difference to be
measured (Figure 1.3.4). The sensor detects the
deflection of the center of the diaphragm, its global
deformation, or the local strain. Some metals used
are beryllium-copper, stainless steel, and nickel-
copper alloys.

A micromachined diaphragm is an etched silicon wafer with diffused or implanted gages that
sense local strain (Figure). Cars and hospitals use
silicon pressure sensors by the millions. The
diaphragm and elements bonded on it must be
compatible with the medium and withstand the
required temperature. Stainless steel diaphragms can
protect sensing diaphragms from corrosive media, but
in order to couple both diaphragms we need to
interpose a fluid, which increases the sensor
compliance and thermal sensitivity.

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For a thin plate with thickness t and radius R experiencing a pressure difference ∆p across it,
if the center deflection is z < t=3

where E is Young's modulus and ν the Poisson's ratio for the plate material. Large, flexible
diaphragms undergo large deflection but have large compliance. Thin plates yield large
deflections but are fragile.

Pressure sensing capsules

The pressure-sensing capsule adapts the diaphragm sensing principle to allow measurement
of low pressures that would otherwise require an impractically large and thin diaphragm. The
capsule comprises two diaphragms, welded at the edge, to allow the pressure media to act on
both simultaneously. The resulting structure displays twice the displacement, relative to the
pressure applied, compared to a single-diaphragm.

Pressure sensing can be done using a single capsule, as shown in the first diagram below, or
using a stack of capsules as shown in the second diagram. Some capsules also feature
profiling (such as the corrugations shown below, right) to optimise linearity and mechanical
strength.

Advantages and disadvantages

Stability, simplicity and its small-size are the main

advantages of the pressure-sensing capsule - as well as
its ability to measure lower pressures, compared with a
diaphragm sensor of a similar size. However, the
capsule does not self-drain so it is not suitable for
Bellows sensing elements measuring pressure in liquid media.

The bellows sensing element is a container that expands in response to the force applied by
the pressure medium within. The bellows is typically made from a metal such as phosphor
bronze, brass, beryllium copper, or stainless steel. It can be machined from solid stock, rolled
from tube, or fabricated with a series of welded annular rings.

An internally mounted - or external - spring enhances the bellows’ response to positive- and
negative-going pressure changes. As a result, the deflection characteristics are a combination
of the mechanical properties of the bellows, and those of the spring.

An attached mechanical movement converts the expansion and contraction of the bellows due
to changing media pressure into a proportional deflection of the pointer to indicate the
pressure on a calibrated scale (see diagram to the right). In this sense the bellows is quite

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similar to the Bourdon tube. Alternatively, the movement may be attached to a potentiometer
to provide an electrical analogue of the applied pressure.

Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages of the bellows sensor include simplicity, low cost, and the ability to connect
directly to a pointer. The movement and pointer can be designed to give a large change in
indication relative to the change in unit pressure, resulting in high resolution.

The bellows must operate within the elastic limit defined by the material and construction.
And the mechanism can fatigue over time. As with capsules, drainage can be a challenge that
may complicate use with liquid media. However, the bellows can be filled with an inert
liquid, such as oil, and the open end sealed with a diaphragm to create an element suitable for
monitoring liquid pressure.

Flow Velocity and Flow-Rate Sensors

A flow sensor (more commonly referred to as a “flow meter”) is an electronic device that
measures or regulates the flow rate of liquids and gasses within pipes and tubes The
differences in pressure (i.e. the vortices) generated by the latch are measured to determine
the flow rate.

Liquid flow is generally measured by applying the Bernoulli’s principle of fluid flow through
a constriction. The quantity of fluid flow is computed by using the pressure drop measured.
The fluid flow volume is proportional to square root of pressure difference at the two ends of
the constriction. There are various types of fluid flow measurement devices being used in
manufacturing automation such as Orifice plate, Turbine meter etc.

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Orifice plate:

Figure shows a
schematic of Orifice
plate device. It has a
disc with a hole at its
center, through
which the fluid
flows. The pressure
difference is
measured between a
point equal to the diameter of the tube upstream and a point equal to the half the diameter
downstream. Orifice plate is inexpensive and simple in construction with no moving parts. It
exhibits nonlinear behavior and does not work with slurries. It has accuracy of ± 1.5%.

Flow Nozzle

When a flow nozzle is placed in a pipe carrying whose rate of flow is to be measured, the
flow nozzle causes a pressure drop which varies with the flow rate.

This pressure drop is measured using a differential pressure sensor and when calibrated this
pressure becomes a measure of flow rate.

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Description of Flow Nozzle

The main parts of flow nozzle arrangement
used to measure flow rate are as follows:
A flow nozzle which is held between
flanges of pipe carrying the fluid whose
flow rate is being measured. The flow
nozzle’s area is minimum at its throat.
Openings are provided at two places 1 and
2 for attaching a differential pressure
sensor (u-tube manometer, differential
pressure gauge etc.,) as show in the

diagram.
Operation of flow Nozzle
The fluid whose flow rate is to be measured enters the nozzle smoothly to the section called
throat where the area is minimum.
Before entering the nozzle, the fluid pressure in the pipe is p1. As the fluid enters the nozzle,
the fluid converges and due to this its pressure keeps on reducing until it reaches the
minimum cross section area called throat. This minimum pressure p2 at the throat of the
nozzle is maintained in the fluid for a small length after being discharged in the down stream
also.
The differential pressure sensor attached between points 1 and 2 records the pressure
difference (p1-p2) between these two points which becomes an indication of the flow rate of
the fluid through the pipe when calibrated.
Applications of Flow Nozzle
• It is used to measure flow rates of the liquid discharged into the atmosphere.
• It is usually used in situation where suspended solids have the property of settling.
• Is widely used for high pressure and temperature steam flows.
Basics of Venturi Flow Meter
A venturi tube contains a throat which is smaller in a diameter to the pipeline, into which it
fits. The restriction diameter should
not be less than 0.224 D, and not
more than 0.742 D where D is the
nominal bore diameter of the pipe.
When the fluid flows through it, the
pressure at the throat is lower than
the upstream pressure (because of

increased kinetic energy due to increased velocity, ½ mv2) and the consequent reduction in
flow energy (Ef = P • . v).

The flow rate is proportional to the pressure difference, P1 -– P2.

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where, k is dependent on the pipeline and throat diameter, density and discharge coefficient

The venturi flow meter should always be used for turbulent flow. Its accuracy for a wide
range of instruments is about 0.5%. ideal for use in Heat Ventilation Air Cond. (HVAC)
applications, or air to furnaces and boilers and for liquids containing particles and slurries.

What is Venturi effect?

The Venturi effect is the reduction in fluid pressure that results when a fluid flows through a
constricted section (or choke) of a pipe. The Venturi effect is named after Giovanni Battista
Venturi (1746–1822), an Italian physicist.

In fluid dynamics, a fluid’s velocity must increase as it passes through a constriction in

accord with the principle of mass continuity, while its static pressure must decrease in accord
with the principle of conservation of mechanical energy. Thus any gain in kinetic energy a
fluid may accrue due to its increased velocity through a constriction is balanced by a drop in
pressure.

By measuring the change in pressure, the flow rate can be determined, as in various flow
measurement devices such as venturi meters, venturi nozzles and orifice plates.

The rotameter in Figure 1.17 applies this method. It consists of a uniform conic section tube
and a grooved float inside it that is dragged by the fluid to a height determined by its weight
and the flow. The fluid gas or liquid flows upward. When the flow increases, the float rises,
thus allowing an increased annular pass section and keeping the pressure difference between
both ends constant. The displacement of the float indicates the fluid flow rate. For pressures
lower than 3.5 kPa and nonopaque liquids, the tube can be of glass and include the scale to
read the float position. For higher pressures and flows the tube must be of metal, and the
position of the float is detected magnetically. There are also inexpensive plastic tubes for
low-pressure, high flow rates. Adding a solenoid outside the tube enables us to apply the null-
measurement method. A photoelectric detector measures the float position. The flow is
determined from the amplitude of the current supplied to the solenoid in order to reposition
the float at zero.

Figure 1.17 A rotameter is a variable area

flowmeter in which the position of a float
indicates the flow rate.

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Figure 1.18 Pitot tube for point velocity flow measurement. (a) In an open conduit the velocity is
indicated by the emerging fluid height. (b) In a closed conduit the velocity is calculated from the
difference between total pressure and static pressure

1.3.4 Level Sensors

Dipsticks are simple level sensors, but cannot easily provide an electric signal. Floats, based on
Archimedes' buoyancy principle, convert liquid level to force or displacement (Figures a and b).

Float level sensors are continuous level sensors featuring a magnetic float that rises and falls as
liquid levels change. The movement of the float creates a magnetic field that actuates a
hermetically sealed reed switch located in the stem of the level sensor, triggering the switch to
open or close.

In sealed or high-pressure containers, the position of the float can be detected magnetically. Build-
up and deposits on the float surface limit performance

Principle of Operation: A liquid level control system by using a float sensor works on the principle
of buoyancy, which states, “A float immersed in a liquid is buoyed towards upward direction by an
applied equal force to the weight of the displaced liquid”. As a result, the body drives partially and
gets submerged upon the liquid surface and covers the same distance the liquid level moves.

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Working: Level detection of liquids is often done with a float-type liquid level switch. The
float transfers on a mechanical arm or sliding pole and activates a switch when the level
moves towards upward direction. Sometimes the float itself contains a small magnet that
varies the state of a switch when the liquid level gets moving up and moves into the original
position. This type of level sensor comes with many advantages like it is very simple, highly
accurate, and best suitable for various products.

The

pressure of liquid or solid is proportional to level according to

(1.56).

where ρ is density and g is the acceleration of gravity. This method is suitable for both
pressurized and open containers. Temperature interferes because it varies density

The bubble tube in Figure d overcomes the need for a pressure port near he container bottom,
which is a potential leak source. The dip tube has an open end close to the bottom of the tank.
An inert gas flows through the dip tube and when gas bubbles escape from the open end, the
gas pressure in the tube equals the hydraulic pressure from the liquid. The level can be
calculated from (1.56).
1.3.5 Force and Torque Sensors
A method to measure force (or torque) is to compare it with a well-known force, as is done
on scales. Another method measures the effect of the force on an elastic element, called a
load cell. In electric load cells, that effect is a deformation or a displacement. In hydraulic
and pneumatic load cells it is an increase in the pressure of, respectively, a liquid or a gas.
Each October issue of Measurements & Control lists the manufacturers and types of
mass/force sensors and load cells.

When a mechanical force is applied to a fixed elastic element, it strains until the strain-
generated stresses balance those due to the applied force. The result is a change in the
dimensions of the element that is proportional to the applied force, if the shape is appropriate.

Figure shows three suitable arrangements.

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Figure: (a) A cantilever, (b) a helical spring, and (c) a torsion bar de¯ect in response to an
applied force or torque

Deflection x or y and Maximal Stress SM or τM for the Elastic Elements Shown in Figure.

1.3.6 Acceleration and Inclination Sensors

Acceleration Sensors:

They are frequently used to determine the speed and the position of various vehicles, such as
planes, ships, cars, robots, etc.

They can be classified according to the physical principle they use:

➢ Direct measurement of a force (piezoelectric sensor, sensor with force balance).

➢ Indirect measurement, by means of displacement or deformation of a sensing element.

The inertial force can be measured either through strain (if deformation is minimum) or
through the deformation of elastic element.

Inclinometer Sensors:

Inclinometers, also called tilt sensor, clinometers or slope sensors, are designed to measure
the angle of an object with respect to the force of gravity. These tilt or level meters determine
the pitch and/or roll angle and output these values via the appropriate electrical interface.

An inclinometer is a sensor used to measure the magnitude of the inclination angle or

deformation of any structure. The bent is either depicted in percentage or degrees concerning
gravity.

Inclinometer sensors are used to measure the slope gradient during activities like tunnelling,
excavation and de-watering. Such activities affect the ground that supports the structure.

The inclinometer installation procedure depends on the application field. It can be installed
vertically to monitor the cut slope or any movement in the shoring wall and embankment. To
monitor the settlement of the soil above the spot of tunnelling, inclinometers are installed
horizontally.

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Inclinometer sensors are of different types. Each inclinometer system requires a combination
of equipment and sensors to measure and collect data.

Inclination sensors. (a) The bubble inside a partially filled vial displaces when the vial tilts.
(b) A mass suspended within a case rotates when the case rotates

1.3.7 Velocity Sensors

Velocity sensors or velocimeters measure absolute casing vibration and – in combination
with a trigger measurement – magnitude and phase.

Velocity sensors are mounted to the measured object. They usually have a rugged design, are
highly sensitive at low frequencies, are simple to mount and don’t need an external power
supply.

Measurement principle:
The magnet of the velocity sensor is suspended on a membrane (spring) which moves
through a coil of wire. Due to the vibration, the coil of wire moves through the magnetic field
of the permanent magnet and generates (induces) a voltage signal which is proportional to the
vibration (velocity).

The measurement direction is important: Some types are mounted vertically, others
horizontally.

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1.4MATERIALS FOR SENSORS

Sensors rely on physical or chemical phenomena and materials where those phenomena
appear usefully-that is, with high sensitivity, repeatability and specificity. Those phenomena
may concern the material itself or its geometry, and most of them have been known for a long
time. Major changes in sensors come from new materials, new fabrication techniques, or
both.

Solids, liquids, and gases consist of atoms, molecules, or ions-atoms or group of atoms that
have lost or gained one or more electrons. Atoms consist of a positive nucleus and electrons
orbiting around it in shells. If the outer electron shell is not full, atoms try to gain extra
electrons and become bonded in the process, forming molecules or agglomerates. There are
four main bond types: ionic, metallic, covalent, and van der Waals

Conductors, Semiconductors and Dielectrics

Physical properties of solids, and their electric properties, are determined by the degree of
filling of the energy bands rather than by their formation. From this point of view all
crystalline bodies can be divided into two different groups.

Conductors

The first group includes substances having a partially filled band in their energy spectrum
above the completely filled energy bands. As was mentioned above a partially filled band is
observed in alkali metals whose upper band is formed by unfilled atomic levels, and in alkali-
earth crystals. All substances belonging to this group are conductors.

Semiconductors and Dielectrics

The second group comprises of substances with absolutely empty bands above completely
filled bands. This group also includes crystals with diamond shaped structures such as
Silicon, Germanium, gray tin, and Diamond itself. This second group includes
semiconductors and dielectrics. The uppermost filled band in these crystals is called valence
band and the first empty band above it the conduction band. The upper level of the valence
band is called the top of the valence band and is denoted by Wv. The lowest level of the
conduction band is called the bottom of conduction band and denoted by Wc.

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The division into semiconductors and Dielectrics is quite arbitrary and is determined by the
width Wg of the forbidden energy gap separating the completely filled band from the empty
band. Substances with a forbidden gap of Wg <2 eV belong to the semiconductor sub-group.
Germanium (Wg » 0.7 eV), silicon (Wg» 1.2 eV), gallium arsenide (Wg » 1.5eV), and
indium antimonide (Wg » 0.2 eV) are typical semiconductors. Substances for which Wg >
3eV belong to dielectrics. Well known dielectrics include corundum(Wg » 7 eV), diamond
(Wg » 5eV). Boron nitride (Wg » 4, 5 eV) and others.

Applications
Conductors like Copper and Aluminum are used to carry electrical current of varying
capacities. They are selected on the basis of affordable voltage drop across the ends of the
conductor at the specified current.

Semiconductors are used in the manufacture of many electronic devices like Diodes, Bipolar
transistors, Field effect transistors, CMOS IC’s etc. Extrinsic semiconductors are doped to
make n-type and p-type semiconductors, which are used in the manufacture of these devices.

Dielectrics and Insulators are used where no conductivity is permitted. They are used as
Insulating supports for current carrying conductors. Room-temperature superconductor is a
material yet to be discovered which would be capable of exhibiting superconducting
properties at temperatures above 0° C (273.15 K). This is of course not strictly speaking
“room temperature” (20–25° C), however it can be reached very cheaply.

Magnetic materials

Magnetic materials are materials studied and used mainly for their magnetic properties. The
magnetic response of a materials is largely determined by the magnetic dipole moment
associated with the intrinsic angular momentum, or spin, of its electrons. A material’s
response to an applied magnetic field can be characterized as diamagnetic, paramagnetic,
ferromagnetic or antiferromagnetic.

The magnetic ¯ux in vacuum is proportional to the applied magnetic ®eld

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SENSORS & SIGNAL CONDITIONING MODULE-1

1.5 MICROSENSOR TECHNOLOGY

Microsensor materials are prepared according to their nature, the desired sensing
principle, and the intended application. There is an increasing interest in applying
integrated circuit (IC) technology and micromachining, because they yield small,
reliable sensors produced in large amounts leading to low cost.

Thick-Film Technology
In the 1970s thick film started to gain popularity. Today, these are by far the most used
resistors in electrical and electronic devices. They come usually as chip resistor (SMD),
and have the lowest cost compared to any other technology.

The resistive material is a special paste with a mixture of a binder, a carrier, and the
metal oxides to be deposited. The binder is a glassy frit and the carrier exists of organic
solvent systems and plasticizers. Modern resistor pastes are based on oxides of
ruthenium, iridium and rhenium. This is also referred to as a cermet (Ceramic –
Metallic). The resistive layer is printed onto a substrate at 850°C. The substrate is often
95% alumina ceramic. After the firing of the paste on the carrier, the film becomes
glasslike, which makes it well protected against moisture. The complete firing process is
schematically depicted in the graph below. The thickness is in the order of 100
micrometer. This is approximately 1000 times more than thin film. Unlike thin film, this
process is additive. This means that the resistive layers are added sequentially to the
substrate to create the conducting patterns and resistance values.

Thin Film Technology

The resistive layer is sputtered (vacuum deposition) onto a ceramic base. This creates a
uniform metallic film of around 0.1 micrometre thick. Often an alloy of Nickel and
Chromium is used (Nichrome). They are produced with different layer thicknesses to
accommodate a range of resistance values. The layer is dense and uniform, which makes
is suitable to trim the resistance value by a subtractive process. With photo etching or by
laser trimming patterns are created to increase the resistive path and to calibrate the
resistance value. The base is often alumina ceramic, silicon or glass. Usually thin film is
produced as a chip or smd resistor, but the film can also be applied onto a cylindrical
base with axial leads. In this case, more often the term metal film resistor is used.

Thin film is usually used for precision applications. They feature relatively high
tolerances, low temperature coefficients and low noise. Also for high frequency
applications thin film performs better than thick film. Inductance and capacitance are
generally lower. The parasitic inductance of thin film can be higher if it is executed as a
cylindrical helix (metal film resistor). This higher performance comes with a cost, which
can be factors higher than the price of thick film resistors. Typical examples where thin
film is used are medical equipment, audio installations, precision controls and
measurement devices..

Dept. of ECE, EWIT, Bangalore 24

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 EAST WEST INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
# 63, Off Magadi Main Road, Bangalore – 560091

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

III Sem

SENSORS AND INSTRUMENTATION BEC306B

MODULE-2

SENSORS & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

SENSORS & SIGNAL CONDITIONING MODULE-2

MODULE-2

SELF-GENERATING SENSORS

STRUCTURE:

➢ Thermoelectric Sensors
➢ Piezoelectric Sensors
➢ Pyroelectric Sensors
➢ Photovoltaic Sensors
➢ Electrochemical Sensors

Self-generating sensors yield an electric signal from a measurand without requiring any electric
supply. They offer alternative methods for measuring many common quantities-in particular,
temperature, force, pressure, and acceleration. Furthermore, because they are based on reversible
effects, these sensors can be used as actuators to obtain nonelectric outputs from electric signals.

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2.1 THERMOELECTRIC SENSORS: THERMOCOUPLES

3.1.1 REVERSIBLE THERMOELECTRIC EFFECTS
Thermoelectric sensors are based on two effects that are reversible. They are the Peltier effect and
the Thomson effect.
In a circuit with two dissimilar homogeneous metals A and B, having two junctions at different
temperatures, an electric current arises. That is, there is a conversion from thermal to electric energy.
If the circuit is opened, a thermoelectric electromotive force (emf) appears that depends only on the
metals and on the junction temperatures.

Seebeck effect in a thermocouple: (a) a current or (b) a potential difference appears when there are
two metal junctions at different temperatures.
Pair of different metals with a fixed junction at a point or zone is called a thermocouple.
The relationship between the emf EAB and the difference in temperature between both junctions T
defines the Seebeck coefficient SAB,

where SA and SB are, respectively, the absolute thermoelectric power for A and B. SAB depends
on T, usually increasing with T. It is important to realize that while the current flowing in the circuit
depends on conductors' resistances, the emf does not depend on the resistivity, on the
conductors' cross sections, or on temperature distribution or gradient. It depends only on the
difference in temperature between both junctions and on the metals, provided that they are
homogeneous. This emf is due to the Peltier and Thomson effects.

2.1.2 PELTIRE AND THOMSON EFFECTS

PELTIER’S EFFECT
The Peltier effect, named to honor Jean C. A. Peltier, who discovered it in 1834, is the heating or
cooling of a junction of two different metals when an electric current flows through it . When the
current direction reverses, so does the heat flow. That is, if a junction heats (liberates heat), and if
the current is reversed, it cools (absorbs heat), and if it cools, and when the current is reversed, it
heats. This effect is reversible and does not depend on. When there is a current along a
thermocouple circuit, one junction cools and the other warms. The emf depends only on the
junction composition and temperature. Furthermore, this dependence is linear and is described by
the Peltier coefficient πAB, sometimes called Peltier voltage because its unit is volts. πAB is
defined as the heat generated at the junction between A and B for each unit of (positive charge)
flowing from B to A; that is,

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THOMSON’S EFFECT

The Thomson effect, discovered by William Thomson in 1847-1854, consists of heat absorption or
liberation in a homogeneous conductor with a nonhomogeneous temperature when there is a
current along it, as shown in figure. The heat liberated is proportional to the current, not to its
square, and therefore changes its sign for a reversed current. Heat is absorbed when charges flow
from the colder to the hotter points, and it is liberated when they flow from the hotter to the colder
one. In other words, heat is absorbed when charge and heat flow in opposite directions, and heat
is liberated when they flow in the same direction.

The heat flux per unit volume q in a conductor of resistivity r with a longitudinal temperature
gradient dT=dx, along which there is a current density i, is

where σ is the Thomson coefficient. The first term on the right side describes the irreversible Joule
effect, and the second term describes the reversible Thomson effect

This equation constitutes the basic theorem for thermoelectricity and shows that the Seebeck
effect results from the Peltier and Thomson effects.
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Figure 6.5 shows different junction types available. Exposed junctions are used for static
measurements or in noncorrosive gas flows where a fast response time is required.

Grounded junctions suit the measurement of static temperatures or temperatures in flowing

corrosive gases or liquids. They are also used in measurements performed under high pressures.
The junction is soldered to the protective sheath so that the thermal response will be faster than
when insulated.

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2. .2 PRACTICAL THERMOCOUPLE LAWS

1. LAW OF HOMOGENOUS CIRCUITS

It is not possible to maintain a thermoelectric current in a circuit formed by a single homogeneous

metal by only applying heat, not even by changing the cross section of the conductor. Figure 6.6
describes the meaning of this law.
In Figure 6.6a the temperatures T3 and T4 do not alter the emf due to T1 and T2. That is, if T1 &
T2 and A or B are heated, there is no current. In other words, intermediate temperatures along a
conductor do not alter the emf produced by a given temperature difference between junctions.

2. LAW OF INTERMEDIATE METALS

The algebraic sum of all emfs in a circuit composed by several different metals remains zero as long
as the entire circuit is at a uniform temperature. This implies that a meter can be inserted into the
circuit without adding any errors, provided that the new junctions inserted are all at the same
temperature, as indicated in Figure 6.7. The measuring instrument can be inserted at a point in a
conductor or at a junction. Nichrome is used in wire wound resistors and strain gages. CuO/Cu yields
a large emf, it is advisable to keep electric contacts clean. A analogy of this law is that if the thermal
relationship between each of two materials and a third one is known, then it is possible to deduce the
relationship between the two first ones. Therefore, it is not necessary to calibrate all the possible
metal pairs in order to know the temperature corresponding to a given emf measured with a given
pair. Rather, its behavior with respect a third material is enough. The reference metal is platinum.

3. LAW OF SUCCESSIVE OR INTERMEDIATE TEMPERATURES

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If two homogeneous metals yield an emf E1 when their junctions are at T1 and T2, and an emf E2
when they are at T2 and T3, then the emf when the junctions are at T1 and T3 will be E1 + E2
(Figure 6.9). This means, for example, that it is not necessary for the reference junction to be at 0
C. Any other reference temperature is also acceptable.
The previous laws enable us to analyze circuits such as those in Figure 6.10. Case (a) shows
several thermocouples connected in series, thus constituting a thermopile. It is straightforward
to verify that this increases the sensitivity compared to the case where a single thermocouple is
used. Case (b) shows a parallel connection, which yields the average temperature if all
thermocouples are linear in the measurement range and have the same resistance.

2.2 PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS

2.2.1 THE PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT
Piezoelectricity is the electric charge that accumulates in certain solid materials—such as crystals,
certain ceramics, and biological matter such as bone, DNA, and various proteins—in response to
applied mechanical stress. The word piezoelectricity means electricity resulting from pressure and
latent heat.
Therefore, when applying an electric voltage between two sides of a piezoelectric material, it
strains. Piezoelectricity must not be confused with ferroelectricity, which is the property of having a
spontaneous or induced electric dipole moment. All ferroelectric materials are piezoelectric, but
the opposite is not always true. Piezoelectricity is related to the crystalline (ionic) structure.
Ferromagnetism is instead related to electron spin. Piezoelectric equations describe the
relationship between electric and mechanical quantities in a piezoelectric material. In Figure
6.14a, where two metal plates have been placed to form a capacitor, for a dielectric
nonpiezoelectric material we have that an applied force F yields a strain S that, according to

Hooke's law, in the elastic range is

where D is the displacement vector (or electric flux density), є is the dielectric constant, єO =8:85
pF/m is the permittivity of vacuum, and P is the polarization vector.

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2.2.2 PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS

Piezoelectric properties are present in 20 of the 32 crystallographic classes, although only a few of
them are used; they are also present in amorphous ferroelectric materials.
Of those 20 classes, only 10 display ferroelectric properties. All piezoelectric materials are
necessarily anisotropic.
In case (a) there is central symmetry. An applied force does not yield any electric polarization. In
case (b), on the contrary, an applied force yields a parallel electric polarization, while in case (c)
an applied force yields a perpendicular polarization. The natural piezoelectric materials most
frequently used are quartz and tourmaline. The synthetic materials more extensively used are
not crystalline but ceramics.
Piezoelectric ceramics display a high thermal and physical stability and can be manufactured in
many different shapes and with a broad range of values for the properties of interest. Their main
disadvantages are the temperature sensitivity of their parameters and their susceptibility to aging
(loss of piezoelectric properties) when they are close to their Curie temperature. The most
commonly used ceramics are lead zirconate titanate (PZT ), barium titanate, and lead niobate.
Bimorphs consist of two ceramic plates glued together and with opposite polarization.
Some polymers lacking central symmetry also display piezoelectric properties with a value high
enough to consider them for those applications where because of the size and shape required it
would be impossible to use other solid materials. The most common is polyvinylidene fluoride
(PVF2 or PVDF ), whose piezoelectric voltage coefficient is about four times that of quartz. In
order to improve the mechanical properties for piezoelectric sensors, piezoelectric ``composite''
materials are used. They are heterogeneous systems consisting of two or more different phases,
one of which at least shows piezoelectric properties.

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2.2.3 APPLICATIONS

1. Figure 6.19 shows an outline for the three types of sensors. This similarity makes
these sensors sensitiveto the three quantities, and therefore special designs are
required that minimize interference.
2. Pulse measurement - they are sensitive enough to record pulse measurements and
can be bonded to the patient’s body with self-adhesive.
3. Stethoscopes - because of their high sensitivity and robustness piezo sensors are often
used within stethoscopes.
4. Anesthesia Effectiveness - piezo sensors are used to measure the effectiveness of
anesthesia as they measure the response of muscles to electrical stimulation.

2.3 PYROELECTRIC SENSORS

2.3.1 THE PYROELECTRIC EFFECT

The pyroelectric effect is analogous to the piezoelectric effect, but instead of change in stress
displacing electric charge, now it refers to change in temperature causing change in spontaneous
polarization and resulting change in electric charge.
When the change in temperature DT is uniform throughout the material, the pyroelectric effect
can be described by means of the pyroelectric coefficient, which is a vector p with the equation.

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SENSORS & SIGNAL CONDITIONING MODULE-2

2.3.1 PYROELECTRIC MATERIALS

Pyroelectricity, like piezoelectricity, is also based on crystal anisotropy, many of the piezoelectric
materials are also pyroelectric. Ten of the 21 non-Centro symmetrical crystallographic classes have
a polar axis of symmetry. All of them display pyroelectric properties.
There are two groups of pyroelectric materials: linear and ferroelectric. The polarization of linear
materials cannot be changed by inverting the electric field. This group includes materials such as
tourmaline, lithium sulfate, and cadmium and selenium sulfides. Some ferroelectric materials with
pyroelectric properties are lithium tantalate, strontium and barium niobate, lead zirconate-titanate,
and triglycine sulfate (TGS). Some polymeric materials such as polyvinylidene (PVF2 or PVDF ) are
also pyroelectric. Pyroelectric properties disappear at the Curie temperature.

2.3.2 THE RADIATION LAWS: PLANK, WIENAND STEFAN-BOLTZMAN

Anybody at a temperature greater than 0 K radiates an amount of electromagnetic energy that

depends on its temperature and physical properties. At temperatures above 500 C, the emitted
radiation is visible. Below 500 C, including ambient temperatures, infrared radiation predominates
so that only heat energy is perceived.

We give the name ``blackbody'' to a theoretical body that absorbs all the energy incident on it
(thereby increasing its temperature). A closed space with black walls and controlled temperature,
and where only a small aperture is provided, behaves approximately as a blackbody.

The ratio between the energy emitted by a given body per unit area per unit time and that emitted
by a blackbody under the same conditions is the emissivity of that body E. For a blackbody, E = 1.
The emissivity depends on the wavelength, the temperature, the physical state, and the chemical
characteristics of the surface.

The energy Wƛ emitted by the blackbody per unit time, per unit area, at a given wavelength ƛ and
temperature T, is given by Planck's law

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which is the equation for Wien's displacement law (to honor the man who discovered it before
Planck's law was discovered). It indicates that the maximum is obtained at a wavelength that
decreases for increasing temperatures.

Stefan-Boltzmann law, statement that the total radiant heat power emitted from a surface is
proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.

2.3.4 APPLICATIONS
The most common application for the pyroelectric effect is the detection of thermal radiation at
ambient temperature. It has been applied to pyrometers (noncontact temperature meters in
furnaces, melted glass or metal, films, and heat loss assessment in buildings).
Other applications are IR analyzers (based on the strong absorption of IR by CO2 and other gases),
intruder and position detection, automatic faucet control, fire detection, high-power laser pulse
detection, and high-resolution thermometry (6 mK). Medical thermometers that measure ear
temperature detect infrared radiation from the eardrum and surrounding tissue.

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2.4 PHOTOVOLTAIC SENSORS

2.4.1 THE PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT

When the internal photoelectric effect occurs in a p-n junction, it is possible to obtain a voltage that
is a function of the incoming radiation intensity. The photovoltaic effect is the generation of an
electric potential when the radiation ionizes a region where there is a potential barrier. When a p-
doped semiconductor (doped with acceptors) contacts an n-doped semiconductor (doped with
donors), because of the thermal agitation there are electrons that go into the p region and ``holes''
that move into the n-region. There they recombine with charge carriers of opposite sign. As a
result, at both sides of the contact surface there are very few free charge carriers. Also, the positive
ions in the n region and the negative ions in the p region, fixed in their positions in the crystal
structure, produce an intense electric field that opposes the diffusion of additional charge carriers
through this potential barrier. This way an equilibrium is attained between the diffusion current and
the current induced by this electric field. By placing an external ohmic connection on each
semiconductor, no voltage difference is detected because the internal difference in potential at the
junction is exactly compensated by contact potentials in the external connections to the
semiconductor. Figure 6.24 shows that radiation whose energy is larger than the semiconductor.

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2.4.2 PHOTOVOLTAIC MATERIALS & APPLICATIONS

In addition to p-n junctions, there are other methods that produce a potential barrier, but p-n
junctions are by far the most common one. If the p-n junction is between semiconductors of the
same composition, then it is called a homojunction. Otherwise, it is called a heterojunction.
We select materials for the particular wavelength to be detected. In the visible and near-infrared
regions, silicon and selenium are used. Silicon is in the form of homojunctions. Selenium in the form
of a selenium layer ( p) covering cadmium oxide (n). For silicon sometimes an intrinsic (non-doped)
silicon region is added between the p and n regions ( p-i-n detectors). This results in a wider
depletion region, which yields a better efficiency at large wavelengths, faster speed, and lower noise
and dark current. At other wavelengths, germanium, indium antimonide (SbIn), and indium
arsenide (AsIn), among others, are used.
Photovoltaic detectors offer better linearity, are faster, and have lower noise than photoconductors,
but they require amplification. For large-load resistors, the linearity decreases and the time of
response increases. Photovoltaic detectors are used either in applications where light intensity is
measured or in applications where light is used to sense a different quantity.
They are used, for example, in analytical instruments such as flame photometers and colorimeters,
in infrared pyrometers, in pulse laser monitors, in smoke detectors, in exposure meters in
photography, and in card readers. Commercial models are available consisting of a matched
emitter-detector pair, some of which are already connected to a control relay.

2.5 ELECTROCHEMICAL SENSORS

Potentiometric electrochemical sensors yield an electric potential in response to a concentration
change in a chemical sample. Amperometric(a chemical titration in which the measurement of the
electric current flowing under an applied potential difference between two electrodes in a solution is
used for detecting the end point) sensors. They are not self-generating sensors and are
potentiometric sensors based on the voltage generated in the interface between phases having
different concentrations. This is the same principle for voltaic cells.
Assume that there is only one ion species whose concentration changes from one phase to another,
or that there are more ions but a selective membrane allows only one specific ion to go through it.
Then the tendency for that ion to diffuse from the high-concentration region to the low-concentration
region is opposed by an electric potential difference due to the ion electric charge. When we have
equilibrium between both forces (diffusion and electric potential), the difference in potential is given
by the Nernst equation is,

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SENSORS & SIGNAL CONDITIONING MODULE-2

where Ci is the concentration for species i, and fi is the activity coefficient, which describes the
extent to which the behavior of species i diverges from the ideal. This measurement principle is
applied by using a two electrode arrangement (Figure 6.26 ). One electrode includes the membrane
that is selective to the ion of interest, and it contains a solution having a known concentration for ion
species i. The other electrode is a reference, and all ions present in the sample to be measured can
freely diffuse through its membrane.

Depending on the material for the membrane, there are different kinds of selective electrodes.
Primary electrodes have a single membrane, which may be crystalline.
When it is crystalline, it can be homogeneous or heterogeneous. In heterogeneous electrodes the
crystalline material is mixed with a matrix o inert material. Crystalline membrane electrodes are
applied to concentration measurement for F-, Cl-, Br-, I-, Cu2+, Pb2+, and Cd2+, among others. The
most

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SENSORS & SIGNAL CONDITIONING MODULE-2

common electrodes with a non-crystalline membrane are glass electrodes, like those used for pH
and Na+ measurement.
Glass composition is chosen depending on the ion to be analyzed. Some metal salts have high
electric conductivity and can be deposited on a metal electrode to act as electrolyte. These are
termed solid- state electrodes.
Other electrodes use a membrane (such as PVC or polyethylene) that includes an ion exchanger or
a neutral material that transports the ion. K+, for example, is measured in a PVC membrane. The
most common double-membrane electrodes are gas electrodes. This method is applied, for
example, to concentration measurement for CO2, SO2, and NO2.
ISEs are used for concentration measurement in multiple applications where they have often
replaced flame photometers. They are used, for example, in agriculture to analyze soils and
fertilizers, in biomedical sciences and clinical laboratories for blood and urine analysis, in chemical
and food industries, and in environmental monitoring to measure ambient pollution.
Solid electrolyte oxygen sensors rely on the influence that oxygen ions adsorbed by a metal oxide
have on the concentration of charge carriers and, hence, on conductivity of the oxide based on
ions, hence it is an electrolyte.
Their main shortcomings are that they need a high temperature to work and that they have a low
sensitivity to pressure changes. For this same reason, however, they can operate over a wide range
of oxygen concentration. They are extensively used to determine the air-to-fuel ratio in internal
combustion engines for example, in automobiles, boilers, and furnaces.

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 EAST WEST INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

III Sem

SENSORS AND INSTRUMENTATION

BEC306B

MODULE-3

SENSORS & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

Sensors & Signal Conditioning Module-3

MODULE-3

Principles of Measurement

➢ Static Characteristics

➢ Error in Measurement

➢ Types of Static Error

➢ Multirange Voltmeter

Digital Voltmeter
➢ Ramp Technique

➢ Dual Slope Integrating Type DVM

➢ Direct Compensation type and successive Approximate

type DVM

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PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION
Instrumentation is a technology of measurement which serves not only science
but all branches of engineering, medicine, and almost every human endeavor.
The knowledge of any parameter largely depends on the measurement. The
indepth knowledge of any parameter can be easily understood by the use of
measurement, and further modifications can also be obtained.
Measuring is basically used to monitor a process or operation, or as well as the
controlling process. For example, thermometers, barometers, anemometers are
used to indicate the environmental conditions. Similarly, water, gas and electric
meters are used to keep track of the quantity of the commodity used, and also
special monitoring equipment are used in hospitals.
Whatever may be the nature of application, intelligent selection and use of
measuring equipment depends on a broad knowledge of what is available and how
the performance of the equipment renders itself for the job to be performed.
But there are some basic measurement techniques and devices that are useful
and will continue to be widely used also. There is always a need for
improvement and development of new equipment to solve measurement
problems.
The major problem encountered with any measuring instrument is the
error. Therefore, it is obviously necessary to select the appropriate measuring
instrument and measurement method which minimises error. To avoid errors
in any experimental work, careful planning, execution and evaluation of the
experiment are essential.
The basic concern of any measurement is that the measuring instrument
should not effect the quantity being measured; in practice, this non-interference
principle is never strictly obeyed. Null measurements with the use of feedback
in an instrument minimise these interference effects.

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STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
The static characteristics of an instrument are, in general, considered for
instruments which are used to measure an unvarying process condition. All the
static performance characteristics are obtained by one form or another of a process
called calibration. There are a number of related definitions (or characteristics),
which are described below, such as accuracy, precision, repeatability,
resolution, errors, sensitivity, etc.
1. Instrument: A device or mechanism used to determine the present
value of the quantity under measurement.
2. Measurement: The process of determining the amount, degree, or
capacity by comparison (direct or indirect) with the accepted standards
of the system units being used.
3. Accuracy: The degree of exactness (closeness) of a measurement
compared to the expected (desired) value.
4. Resolution: The smallest change in a measured variable to which an
instrument will respond.
5. Precision: A measure of the consistency or repeatability of
measurements, i.e. successive reading do not differ. (Precision is the
consistency of the instrument output for a given value of input).
6. Expected value: The design value, i.e. the most probable value that
calculations indicate one should expect to measure.
7. Error: T h e deviation of the true value from the desired value.
8. Sensitivity The ratio of the change in output (response) of the instrument

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to a change of input or measured variable.

ERROR IN MEASUREMENT
Measurement is the process of comparing an unknown quantity with an accepted
standard quantity. It involves connecting a measuring instrument into the system
under consideration and observing the resulting response on the instrument.
The measurement thus obtained is a quantitative measure of the so-called “true
value” (since it is very difficult to define the true value, the term “expected
value” is used). Any measurement is affected by many variables; therefore, the
results rarely reflect the expected value. For example, connecting a measuring
instrument into the circuit under consideration always disturbs (changes) the
circuit, causing the measurement to differ from the expected value.
Some factors that affect the measurements are related to the measuring
instruments themselves. Other factors are related to the person using the
instrument. The degree to which a measurement nears the expected value is
expressed in terms of the error of measurement.
Error may be expressed either as absolute or as percentage of error.
Absolute error may be defined as the difference between the expected value
of the variable and the measured value of the variable, or
e = Yn – Xn

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Example1.1 (a) The

expected value of the voltage across a resistor is 80 V. However, the measurement
gives a value of 79 V. Calculate (i) absolute error, (ii) % error, (iii) relative
accuracy, and (iv) % of accuracy.

Example 1.1 (b) The expected value of the current through a resistor is 20
mA. However the measurement yields a current value of 18 mA. Calculate
(i) absolute error (ii) % error (iii) relative accuracy (iv) % accuracy

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Solution
Step 1: Absolute error
e = Yn – Xn
where e = error, Yn = expected value, Xn = measured value
Given Yn = 20 mA and Xn = 18 mA
Therefore e = Yn – Xn = 20 mA – 18 mA = 2 mA

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If a measurement is accurate, it must also be precise, i.e. Accuracy means

precision. However, a precision measurement may not be accurate. (The
precision of a measurement is a quantitative or numerical indication of the
closeness with which a repeated set of measurement of the same variable agree
with the average set of measurements.) Precision can also be expressed
mathematically as

where X =n value of the nth measurement

–
X n = average set of measurement
Example 1.2 Table 1.1 gives the set of 10 measurement that were recorded
in the laboratory. Calculate the precision of the 6th measurement.

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The accuracy and precision of measurements depend not only on the quality
of the measuring instrument but also on the person using it. However, whatever

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the quality of the instrument and the case exercised by the user, there is always
some error present in the measurement of physical quantities.
TYPES OF STATIC ERROR
The static error of a measuring instrument is the numerical difference between
the true value of a quantity and its value as obtained by measurement, i.e.
repeated measurement of the same quantity gives different indications. Static
errors are categorised as gross errors or human errors, systematic errors, and
random errors.
Gross Errors
These errors are mainly due to human mistakes in reading or in using instruments
or errors in recording observations. Errors may also occur due to incorrect
adjustment of instruments and computational mistakes. These errors cannot be
treated mathematically.
The complete elimination of gross errors is not possible, but one can minimise
them. Some errors are easily detected while others may be elusive.
One of the basic gross errors that occurs frequently is the improper use of an
instrument. The error can be minimized by taking proper care in reading and
recording the measurement parameter.
In general, indicating instruments change ambient conditions to some
extent when connected into a complete circuit. (Refer Examples 1.3(a)
and (b)).
(One should therefore not be completely dependent on one reading only; at
least three separate readings should be taken, preferably under conditions in
which instruments are switched off and on.)
Systematic Errors
These errors occur due to shortcomings of the instrument, such as defective or
worn parts, or ageing or effects of the environment on the instrument.
These errors are sometimes referred to as bias, and they influence all
measurements of a quantity alike. A constant uniform deviation of the operation
of an instrument is known as a systematic error. There are basically three types

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of systematic errors—(i) Instrumental, (ii) Environmental, and (iii)

Observational.
(i) Instrumental Errors:
Instrumental errors are inherent in measuring instruments, because of their
mechanical structure. For example, in the D’Arsonval movement, friction
in the bearings of various moving components, irregular spring tensions,
stretching of the spring, or reduction in tension due to improper handling
or overloading of the instrument.
Instrumental errors can be avoided by
(a) selecting a suitable instrument for the particular
measurement applications. (Refer Examples 1.3 (a) and (b)).
(b) applying correction factors after determining the amount of
instrumental error.
(c) calibrating the instrument against a standard.
(ii) Environmental Errors:
Environmental errors are due to conditions external to the measuring
device, including conditions in the area surrounding the instrument,
such as the effects of change in temperature, humidity, barometric
pressure or of magnetic or electrostatic fields.
These errors can also be avoided by (i) air conditioning, (ii)
hermetically sealing certain components in the instruments, and (iii)
using magnetic shields.
(iii) Observational Errors:
Observational errors are errors introduced by the observer. The most
common error is the parallax error introduced in reading a meter
scale, and the error of estimation when obtaining a reading from a
meter scale.
These errors are caused by the habits of individual observers. For
example, an observer may always introduce an error by consistently

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holding his head too far to the left while reading a needle and scale
reading.
In general, systematic errors can also be subdivided into static and dynamic
errors. Static errors are caused by limitations of the measuring device or the
physical laws governing its behavior. Dynamic errors are caused by the
instrument not responding fast enough to follow the changes in a measured
variable.

Example 1.3 (a) A voltmeter having a sensitivity of 1 is connected

across an unknown resistance in series with a milliammeter reading 80 V on
150 V scale. When the milliammeter reads 10 mA, calculate the (i) Apparent
resistance of the unknown resistance, (ii) Actual resistance of the unknown
resistance, and (iii) Error due to the loading effect of the voltmeter.

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In Example 1.3 (a), a well calibrated voltmeter may give a misleading

resistance when connected across two points in a high resistance circuit. The
same voltmeter, when connected in a low resistance circuit (Example 1.3 (b))
may give a more dependable reading. This show that voltmeters have a loading
effect in the circuit during measurement.

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Random Errors
These are errors that remain after gross and systematic errors have been
substantially reduced or at least accounted for. Random errors are generally an
accumulation of a large number of small effects and may be of real concern
only in measurements requiring a high degree of accuracy. Such errors can be
analyzed statistically.
These errors are due to unknown causes, not determinable in the ordinary
process of making measurements. Such errors are normally small and follow the
laws of probability. Random errors can thus be treated mathematically.
For example, suppose a voltage is being monitored by a voltmeter which
is read at 15 minutes intervals. Although the instrument operates under ideal
environmental conditions and is accurately calibrated before measurement, it still
gives readings that vary slightly over the period of observation. This variation
cannot be corrected by any method of calibration or any other known method
of control.

SOURCES OF ERROR
The sources of error, other than the inability of a piece of hardware to provide a
true measurement, are as follows:
1. Insufficient knowledge of process parameters and design conditions
2. Poor design
3. Change in process parameters, irregularities, upsets, etc.
4. Poor maintenance
5. Errors caused by person operating the instrument or equipment
6. Certain design limitations.

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MULTIRANGE AMMETERS
The current range of the dc ammeter
may be further extended by a number
of shunts, selected by a range
switch. Such a meter is called a
multirange ammeter, shown in Fig.
3.2.
The circuit has four shunts R1, R2,
R3 and R4, which can be placed in
parallel with the movement to give
four different current ranges. Switch
S is a multiposition switch, (having
low contact resistance and high
current carrying capacity, since its
contacts are in series with low
resistance shunts). Make before
break type switch is used for range
changing. This switch protects the
meter movement from being
damaged without a shunt during
range changing.
If we use an ordinary switch for range changing, the meter does not
have any shunt in parallel while the range is being changed, and hence full
current passes through the meter movement, damaging the movement. Hence
a make before break type switch is used. The switch is so designed that when
the switch position is changed, it makes contact with the next terminal (range)
before breaking contact with the previous terminal. Therefore, the meter
movement is never left unprotected. Multirange ammeters are used for ranges
up to 50A. When using a multirange ammeter, first use the highest current
range, then decrease the range until good upscale reading is obtained. The
resistance used for the various ranges are of very high precision values, hence
the cost of the meter increases.

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Example 3.3 Design a multirange ammeter with range of 0–1 A, 5 A and 10 A

employing individual shunt in each A D’Arsonval movement with an internal
resistance of 500 W and a full scale deflection of 10 mA is available.

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MULTIRANGE VOLTMETER
As in the case of an ammeter, to obtain a multirange ammeter, a number
of shunts are connected across the movement with a multi-position
switch. Similarly, a dc voltmeter can be converted into
a multirange voltmeter by
connecting a number of
resistors (multipliers) along
with a range switch to provide
a greater number of workable
ranges.
Figure 4.2 shows a
multirange voltmeter using a
three-position switch and
three multipliers R1, R2, and
In
R3this
for arrangement,
voltage valuesthe multipliers are connected in a series string, and
V1, V2,
the
and range
V3. selector selects the appropriate amount of resistance required
in series with
Figure 4.2thecan
movement.
be further
modified to Fig. 4.3, which is
a more practical arrangement
of the multiplier resistors of a
multirange voltmeter.

This arrangement is advantageous compared to the previous one, because

all multiplier resistances except the first have the standard resistance value and
are also easily available in precision tolerances.
The first resistor or low range multiplier, R4, is the only special resistor which
has to be specially manufactured to meet the circuit requirements.

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Example 4.4 A D’ Arsonval movement with a full scale deflection current of 10

mA and internal resistance of 500 W is to be converted into a multirange voltmeter.
Determine the value of multiplier required for 0–20 V, 0–50 V and 0–100 V.

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Example 4.5 Convert a basic D’Arsonval movement with an internal resistance

of 100 W and a full scale deflection of 10 mA into a multirange dc voltmeter with
ranges from 0 – 5 V, 0 – 50 V and 0 – 100 V.

Example 4.6 Convert a basic D’Arsonval movement with an internal resistance

of 50 W and a full scale deflection current of 2 mA into a multirange dc
voltmeter with voltage ranges of 0 – 10 V, 0 – 50 V, 0 – 100 V and 0 – 250
V. Refer to Fig. 4.3.

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DITITAL VOLTMETERS
RAMP TECHNIQUE
The operating principle i
s to measure the time that a linear ramp takes to change the input level to the
ground level, or vice-versa. This time period is measured with an electronic
time-interval counter and the count is displayed as a number of digits on an
indicating tube or display. The operating principle and block diagram of a ramp
type DVM are shown in Figs 5.1 and 5.2.

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The ramp may be positive or negative; in this case a negative ramp has been
selected.
At the start of the measurement a ramp voltage is initiated (counter is reset to 0
and sampled rate multivibrator gives a pulse which initiates the ramp generator).
The ramp voltage is continuously compared with the voltage that is being
measured. At the instant these two voltage become equal, a coincidence circuit
generates a pulse which opens a gate, i.e. the input comparator generates a start
pulse. The ramp continues until the second comparator circuit senses that the
ramp has reached zero value. The ground comparator compares the ramp with
ground. When the ramp voltage equals zero or reaches ground potential, the
ground comparator generates a stop pulse. The output pulse from this comparator
closes the gate. The time duration of the gate opening is proportional to the input
voltage value.
In the time interval between the start and stop pulses, the gate opens and the
oscillator circuit drives the counter. The magnitude of the count indicates the
magnitude of the input voltage, which is displayed by the readout. Therefore, the
voltage is converted into time and the time count represents the magnitude of the
voltage. The sample rate multivibrator determines the rate of cycle of
measurement. A typical value is 5 measuring cycles per second, with an accuracy
of ± 0.005% of the reading. The sample rate circuit provides an initiating pulse for
the ramp generator to start its next ramp voltage. At the same time a reset pulse is
generated, which resets the counter to the zero state.

Any DVM has a fundamental cycle sequence which involves sampling,

displaying and reset sequences

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Advantages and Disadvantages The ramp technique circuit is easy to design

and its cost is low. Also, the output pulse can be transmitted over long feeder lines.
However, the single ramp requires excellent characteristics regarding linearity of
the ramp and time measurement. Large errors are possible when noise is
superimposed on the input signal. Input filters are usually required with this type
of converter.
DUAL SLOPE INTEGRATING TYPE DVM
In ramp techniques, superimposed noise can cause large errors. In the dual
ramp technique, noise is averaged out by the positive and negative ramps using the
process of integration.
Principle of Dual Slope Type DVM As illustrated in Fig. 5.3, the input
voltage ‘ei’ is integrated, with the slope of the integrator output proportional to the
test input voltage. After a fixed time, equal to t1, the input voltage is disconnected
and the integrator input is connected to a negative voltage –er. The integrator
output will have a negative slope which is constant and proportional to the
magnitude of the input voltage. The block diagram is given in Fig. 5.4.

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At the start a pulse resets the counter and the F/F output to logic level ‘0’. Si is
closed and Sr is open. The capacitor begins to charge. As soon as the integrator
output exceeds zero, the comparator output voltage changes state, which opens
the gate so that the oscillator clock pulses are fed to the counter. (When the
ramp voltage starts, the comparator goes to state 1, the gate opens and clock
pulse drives the counter.) When the counter reaches maximum count, i.e. the
counter is made to run for a time ‘t1’ in this case 9999, on the next clock pulse
all digits go to 0000 and the counter activates the F/F to logic level ‘1’. This
activates the switch drive, ei is disconnected and –er is connected to the

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integrator. The integrator output will have a negative slope which is constant,
i.e. integrator output now decreases linearly to 0 volts. Comparator output state
changes again and locks the gate. The discharge time t2 is now proportional to
the input voltage. The counter indicates the count during time t2. When the
negative slope of the integrator reaches zero, the comparator switches to state
0 and the gate closes, i.e. the capacitor C is now discharged with a constant
slope. As soon as the comparator input (zero detector) finds that eo is zero, the
counter is stopped. The pulses counted by the counter thus have a direct relation
with the input voltage.
i.e. the capacitor C is now discharged with a constant slope. As soon as the
comparator input (zero detector) finds that eo is zero, the counter is stopped.
The pulses counted by the counter thus have a direct relation with the input
voltage.

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If the oscillator period equals T and the digital counter indicates n1 and n2
counts respectively,

From Eq. 5.3 it is evident that the accuracy of the measured voltage is
independent of the integrator time constant. The times t1 and t2 are measured by
the count of the clock given by the numbers n1 and n2 respectively. The clock
oscillator period equals T and if n1 and er are constants, then Eq. 5.4 indicates
that the accuracy of the method is also independent of the oscillator frequency.

The dual slope technique has excellent noise rejection because noise and
superimposed ac are averaged out in the process of integration. The speed and
accuracy are readily varied according to specific requirements; also, an
accuracy of ± 0.05% in 100 ms is available.

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DIRECT COMPENSATION TYPE

The input signal is compared with an internally generated voltage which is
increased in steps starting from zero. The number of steps needed to reach
the full compensation is counted. A simple compensation type is the staircase
ramp. The Staircase Ramp The basic principle is that the input
input signal Vi is compared with an
internal staircase voltage, Vc,
generated by a series circuit
consisting of a pulse generator
(clock), a counter counting the
pulses and a digital to analog
converter, converting the counter
output into a dc signal. As soon as
Vc is equal to Vi, the input
comparator closes a gate between
the clock and the counter, the
counter stops and its output is
shown on the display. The basic
block diagram is shown in Fig. 5.8.

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Operation of the Circuit The clock

generates pulses continuously. At the
start of a measurement, the counter is
reset to 0 at time t1 so that the output
of the digital to analog converter
(DAC) is also 0. If Vi is not equal to
zero, the input comparator applies an
output voltage that opens the gate so
that clock pulses are passed on to the
counter through the gate. The counter
starts counting and the DAC starts to
produce an output voltage increasing
by one small step at each count of the
counter. The result is a staircase
voltage applied to the second input of
the comparator, as shown in Fig. 5.9
This process continues until the staircase voltage is equal to or slightly
greater than the input voltage Vi. At that instant t2, the output voltage of the input
comparator changes state or polarity, so that the gate closes and the counter is
stopped.
The display unit shows the result of the count. As each count corresponds
to a constant dc step in the DAC output voltage, the number of counts is directly
proportional to Vc and hence to Vi. By appropriate choice of reference voltage,
the step height of the staircase voltage can be determined. For example, each count
can represent 1 mV and direct reading of the input voltage in volts can be realised
by placing a decimal point in front of the 10 decade.
The advantages of a staircase type DVM are as follows:
1. Input impedance of the DAC is high when the compensation is reached.
2. The accuracy depends only on the stability and accuracy of the voltage and
DAC. The clock has no effect on the accuracy.

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The disadvantages are the following:

1. The system measures the instantaneous value of the input signal at the
moment compensation is reached. This means the reading is rather unstable,
i.e. the input signal is not a pure dc voltage.
2. Until the full compensation is reached, the input impedance is low, which
can influence the accuracy.
SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATIONS TYPE DVM
The successive approximation principle can be easily understood using a simple
example; the determination of the weight of an object. By using a balance and
placing the object on one side and an approximate weight on the other side, the
weight of the object is determined.
If the weight placed is more than the unknown weight, the weight is removed
and another weight of smaller value is placed and again the measurement is
performed. Now if it is found that the weight placed is less than that of the
object, another weight of smaller value is added to the weight already present,
and the measurement is performed. If it is found to be greater than the unknown
weight the added weight is removed and another weight of smaller value
is added. In this manner by adding and removing the appropriate weight, the
weight of the unknown object is determined. The successive approximation
DVM works on the same principle. Its basic block diagram is shown in
Fig. 5.10. When the start pulse signal activates the control circuit, the successive
approximation register (SAR) is cleared. The output of the SAR is 00000000.
Vout of the D/A converter is 0. Now, if Vin > Vout the comparator output is
positive.
During the first clock pulse, the control circuit sets the D7 to 1, and Vout
jumps to the half reference voltage. The SAR output is 10000000. If Vout is
greater than Vin, the comparator output is negative and the control circuit resets
D7. However, if Vin is greater than Vout, the comparator output is positive and

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the control circuits keeps D7 set. Similarly, the rest of the bits beginning from
D7 to D0 are set and tested. Therefore, the measurement is completed in 8 clock
pulses.

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At the beginning of the measurement cycle, a start pulse is applied to the start-stop
multivibrator. This sets a 1 in the MSB of the control register and a 0 in all bits
(assuming an 8-bit control) its reading would be 10000000. This initial setting of
the register causes the output of the D/A converter to be half the reference voltage,
i.e. 1/2 V. This converter output is compared to the unknown input by the
comparator. If the input voltage is greater than the converter reference voltage, the
comparator output produces an output that causes the control register to retain the
1 setting in its MSB and the converter continues to supply its reference output
voltage of 1/2 Vref.

The ring counter then advances one count, shifting a 1 in the second MSB
of the control register and its reading becomes 11000000. This causes the D/A
converter to increase its reference output by 1 increment to 1/4 V, i.e. 1/2 V +
1/4 V, and again it is compared with the unknown input. If in this case the total
reference voltage exceeds the unknown voltage, the comparator produces an
output that causes the control register to reset its second MSB to 0. The converter
output then returns to its previous value of 1/2 V and awaits another input from
the SAR. When the ring counter advances by 1, the third MSB is set to 1 and the
converter output rises by the next increment of 1/2 V + 1/8 V. The measurement
cycle thus proceeds through a series of successive approximations. Finally, when
the ring counter reaches its final count, the measurement cycle stops and the
digital output of the control register represents the final approximation of the
unknown input voltage.
Example Suppose the converter can measure a maximum of 5 V, i.e. 5 V
corresponds to the maximum count of 11111111. If the test voltage Vin = 1 V the
following steps will take place in the measurement. (Refer to Table 5.1 and Fig.
5.11.)

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Therefore, Vin nearly equals Vout, i.e. Vin = 1 V and Vout = 0.99785. The
main advantage of this method is speed. At best it takes n clock pulses to
produce an n bit result. Even if the set, test, set or reset operation takes more
than 1 clock pulse, the SAR method is still considerably faster than the counter
method. However, the control circuit is more complex in design and cost is
enhanced. This digital voltmeter is capable of 1000 readings per second.

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With input voltages greater than dc, the

input level changes during digitisation and
decisions made during conversion are not
consistent. To avoid this error, a sample
and hold circuit is used and placed in the
input directly following the input
attenuator and amplifier.
In its simplest form, the sample and hold
(S/H) circuit can be represented by a switch
and a capacitor, as shown in Fig. 5.12.
In the Sample mode, the switch is
closed and the capacitor charges to the
instantaneous value of the input voltage.
In the Hold mode, the switch is opened and the capacitor holds the voltage that
it had at the instant the switch was opened. If the switch drive is synchronized
with the ring counter pulse, the actual measurement and conversion takes place
when the S/H circuit is in the Hold mode. The outputwaveform of a sample
and hold circuit is shown in Fig. 5.13

An actual sample and hold circuit is shown in Fig. 5.14. The sample pulse
operates switches 1 and 3. The hold pulse operates switches 2 and 4. The sample-
hold pulses are complementary.

In the sample mode the hold capacitor is charged up by the Opamp. In the hold
mode, the capacitor is switched into the feedback loop, while input resistors R1
and Rf are switched to ground. Opamps are used to increase the available driving
current into the capacitor or to isolate the capacitor from an external load on the
output.

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The S/H circuit is basically an Opamp that charges the capacitor during the
Sample mode and retains the charge during the Hold mode.

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 EAST WEST INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

III Sem

SENSORS AND INSTRUMENTATION BEC306B

MODULE-4

SENSORS & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

 MODULE-4

Digital Multimeter

➢ Digital Frequency Meter and Digital Measurement of Time

➢ Function Generator

Bridges

➢ Measurement of resistance

➢ Wheatstone’s Bridge

➢ AC Bridges- Capacitance and Inductance Comparison bridge

➢ Wien’s Bridge.
Sensors & Signal Conditioning Module-4

4.1 Introduction

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4.2 Digital Multimeter

Analog meters require no power supply, they give a better visual indication of changes and suffer less
from electric noise and isolation problems. These meters are simple and inexpensive.

Digital meters, on the other hand, offer high accuracy, have a high input impedance and are smaller in
size. They give an unambigious reading at greater viewing distances. The output available is electrical (for
interfacing with external equipment), in addition to a visual readout.
The three major classes of digital meters are panel meters, bench type meters and system meters.
All digital meters employ some kind of analog to digital (A/D) converters (often dual slope integrating
type) and have a visible readout display at the converter output.
Panel meters are usually placed at one location (and perhaps even a fixed range), while bench meters
and system meters are often multimeters, i.e. they can read ac and dc voltage currents and resistances over
several ranges.
The basic circuit shown in Fig. 4.2 (a) is always a dc voltmeter. Current is converted to voltage by
passing it through a precision low shunt resistance while alternating current is converted into dc by
employing rectifiers and filters. For resistance measurement, the meter includes a precision low current
source that is applied across the unknown resistance; again, this gives a dc voltage which is digitised and
readout as ohms.

Fig. 4.2 (a) Digital multimeter

Bench meters are intended mainly for standalone operation and visual operation reading, while
system meters provide at least an electrical binary coded decimal output (in parallel with the usual
display), and perhaps sophisticated interconnection and control capabilities, or even microprocessor-based
computing power.

A basic digital multimeter (DMM) is made up of several A/D converters, circuitry for counting and an
attenuation circuit. A basic block diagram of a DMM is shown in Fig. 4.2 (b). The current to voltage
converter shown in the block diagram of Fig. 4.2 (b) can be implemented with the circuit shown in Fig.
4.2 (c).

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Fig. 4.2 (b) Block Diagram of a basic digital multimeter

The current to be measured is applied to the summing junction (S i) at the input of the opamp. Since
the current at the input of the amplifier is close to zero because of the very high input impedance of the
amplifier, the current IR is very nearly equal to Ii, the current IR causes a voltage drop which is
proportional to the current, to be developed across the resistors. This voltage drop is the input to the A/D
converter, thereby providing a reading that is proportional to the unknown current.

Fig 4.2 (c) Current to voltage converter

Resistance is measured by passing a known current, from a constant current source, through an
unknown resistance. The voltage drop across the resistor is applied to the A/D converter, thereby
producing an indication of the value of the unknown resistance.

4.2.1 Digital Panel Meters (DPM)

Digital panel meters are available in a very wide variety of special purpose functions. They have a readout
range from the basic 3 digit (999 counts, accuracy of ± 0.1% of reading, ± 1 count) to high precision 4¾
digit ones (± 39,999 counts, accuracy ± 0.005% of reading ± 1 count). Units are available to accept inputs
such as dc voltage (from microvolts range to ± 20 volts) ac voltage (for true rms measurement), line voltage,
strain gauge bridges (meter provides bridge excitation), RTDs (meter provides sensor excitation),
thermocouples of many types (meter provides cold junction compensation and linearisation) and frequency
inputs, such as pulse tachometers.
Figure 4.3 shows some details of a high precision unit with an input resistance of 109 W, ± 0.00250%
resolution (10 mV), and ± 0.005% of reading
± 1 count accuracy, which uses a dual slope A/D conversion with automatic zero. The sampling rate is
2.5 per second when it is free running and a maximum of 10 per second when it is externally triggered.

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Fig. 4.3 High Precision Digital Panel Meter

These meters can be obtained with a tri-state binary coded decimal output. Tri-state outputs provide
a high impedance (disconnected) state, in addition to the usual digital high and low. This facilitates
interconnection with the micro- computer data buses, since any number of devices can be serviced by a
single bus, one at a time, disconnecting all except the two that are communicating with each other.

4.2.2 Bench Type Meters

Bench type meters range from inexpensive hand-held units with a 3½ digit readout and 0.5% accuracy, to
5½ digit (200,000 count) devices with 1 mV resolution. Digital nanovoltmeters are designed to measure
extremely low voltages and they provide resolution down to about 10 nV (comparable analog meters go
to about 1 nV).
Digital picometers measure very small currents and can resolve about 1 pA (analog instruments
go to 3 femto (10–15) amperes). When extremely high input impedance is required for current, voltage,
resistance or charge measurements, an electrometer type of instrument is employed.
Digital electrometer can resolve 10–17 A, 10 mV and 1 femto charge and measure resistance as high
as 200 T W (Tera = 1012). The input impedance can be as high as 10,000 T W.

4.2.3 System Type Meters

System type DVMs or DMMs are designed to provide the basic A/D conversion function in data systems
assembled by interfacing various peripheral devices with DVM capabilities and their cost vary widely.

A microprocessor is used to provide several mathematical functions in ad- dition to managing the
meter operations. A modified dual slope A/D converter is used with selectable integration times, ranging
from 0.01 to 100 power lines cycle. At maximum speed (330 readings per second) accuracy is
± 0.1%, while 0.57 readings per second gives a 6½ digit resolution and 0.001% accuracy. Ac and dc
voltages and resistance modes are available. The mathematical functions include the following.

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1. Null
2. First reading is subtracted from each successive reading and the difference is displayed. (The first
reading can be manually entered from the key-board.)
3. The function STAT accumulates reading and calculates mean and variance, (STAT-Statistics).
4. With dBm (R), the user enters the resistance and then all readings are displayed as power
dissipated in R in decibel units (referred to 1 mV).
5. With THMS°F (voltmeter in ohms range), the temperature of a thermistor probe is displayed in
degrees Fahrenheit or Centigrade (THMS - Temperature of Thermistor)
6. The function (X – Z)/Y provides offsetting and scaling with user entered
7. Z and Y constants (where X is the reading).
8. 7. The function 100 ¥ (X – Y)/Y determines the percentage deviation, and
9. 20 log X/Y displays X in decibels relative to the value of Y. An internal
10. memory (RAM) can be used to store the results of measurements and
11. programs for taking the measurements.

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4.3 DIGITAL FREQUENCY METER

Principle of Operation The signal waveform is converted to trigger pulses and applied continuously to an
AND gate, as shown in Fig. 4.4. A pulse of 1 s is applied to the other terminal, and the number of pulses
counted during this period indicates the frequency.
The signal whose frequency is to be measured is converted
into a train of pulses, one pulse for each cycle of the signal.
The number of pulses occurring in a definite interval of time is
then counted by an electronic counter. Since each pulse
represents the cycle of the unknown signal, the number of
counts is a direct indication of the frequency of the signal
(unknown). Since electronic counters have a high speed of
operation, high frequency signals can be measured. Fig. 4.4 Principle of Digital frequency
measurement

4.3.1 Basic Circuit of a Digital Frequency Meter

The block diagram of a basic circuit of a digital frequency meter is shown in Fig. 4.5.

Fig. 4.5 Basic circuits of a digital frequency meter

The signal may be amplifi ed before being applied to the Schmitt trigger. The Schmitt
trigger converts the input signal into a square wave with fast rise and fall times, which
is then differentiated and clipped. As a result, the output from the Schmitt trigger is a
train of pulses, one pulse for each cycle of the signal.
The output pulses from the Schmitt trigger are fed to a START/STOP gate. When this
gate is enabled, the input pulses pass through this gate and are fed directly to the
electronic counter, which counts the number of pulses.
When this gate is disabled, the counter stops counting the incoming pulses. The counter
displays the number of pulses that have passed through it in the time interval between
start and stop. If this interval is known, the unknown frequency can be measured.

4.3.2 Basic Circuit for Frequency Measurement

The basic circuit for frequency measurement is as shown in Fig. 6.6. The output of the
unknown frequency is applied to a Schmitt trigger, producing positive pulses at the
output. These pulses are called the counter signals and are present at point A of the main
gate. Positive pulses from the time base selector are present at point B of the START
gate and at point B of the STOP gate.

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Fig. 4.4 Basic circuit for measurement of frequency showing gate control F/F

Now the pulses from the unknown frequency source pass through the main gate to
the counter and the counter starts counting. This same pulse from the START gate is
applied to the set input of F/F–1, changing its state from 0 to 1. This disables the START
gate and enables the STOP gate. However, till the main gate is enabled, pulses from the
unknown frequency continue to pass through the main gate to the counter.

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The next pulse from the time base selector passes through the enabled STOP gate to the set input
terminal of F/F–2, changing its output back to 1 and Y¯ = 0. Therefore, the main gate is disabled,
disconnecting the unknown frequency signal from the counter. The counter counts the number of pulses
occurring between two successive pulses from the time base selector. If the time interval between these two
successive pulses from the time base selector is 1 second, then the number of pulses counted within this
interval is the frequency of the unknown frequency source, in Hertz.
The assembly consisting of two F/Fs and two gates is called a gate control F/F. The block diagram
of a digital frequency meter is shown in Fig. 6.7.

The input signal is amplifi ed and converted to a square wave by a Schmitt trigger circuit. In this diagram,
the square wave is differentiated and clipped to produce a train of pulses, each pulse separated by the period
of the input signal. The time base selector output is obtained from an oscillator and is similarly converted
into positive pulses.
The first pulse activates the gate control F/F. This gate control F/F provides an enable signal to the AND
gate. The trigger pulses of the input signal are allowed to pass through the gate for a selected time period
and counted. The second pulse from the decade frequency divider changes the state of the control F/F and
removes the enable signal from the AND gate, thereby closing it. The decimal counter and display unit
output corresponds to the number of input pulses received during a precise time interval; hence the counter
display corresponds to the frequency.

4.3.3 High Frequency Measurement (Extending the Frequency Range)

The direct count range of digital frequency meter (DFM) extends from dc to a few 100 MHz. The
limitations arises because of the counters used along with the DFM. The counters cannot count at the
speed demanded by high frequency measurement.
This range of a few 100 MHz covers only a small portion of the frequency spectrum. Therefore,
techniques other than direct counting have been used to extend the range of digital frequency meters to
above 40 GHz. The input frequency is reduced before it is applied to a digital counter. This is done by
special techniques. Some of the techniques used are as follows.

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1. Prescaling The high frequency signal by the use of high speed is divided by the integral numbers such as
2, 4, 6, 8 etc. divider circuits, to get it within the frequency range of DFM (for example synchronous
counters).
2. Heterodyne Converter The high frequency signal is reduced in frequency to a range within that of the
meter, by using heterodyne techniques.
3. Transfer Oscillator A harmonic or tunable LF continuous wave oscillator is zero beat (mixed to produce
zero frequency) with the unknown high frequency signal. The LF oscillator frequency is measured and
multiplied by an integer which is equal to the ratio of the two frequencies, in order to determine the value
of the unknown HF.
[Link] Divider The high frequency signal is reduced by some factor, such as 100:1, using
automatically tuned circuits which generates an output frequency equal to 1/100th or 1/1000th of the
input frequency.

4.4 DIGITAL MEASUREMENT OF TIME

Principle of Operation The beginning of the time period is the start pulse originating from input 1, and
the end of the time period is the stop pulse coming from input 2.
The oscillator runs continuously, but the oscillator pulses reach the output only during the period when
the control F/F is in the 1 state. The number of output pulses counted is a measure of the time period.

4.4.1 Time Base Selector

It is clear that in order to know the value of frequency of the input signal, the time interval between the start
and stop of the gate must be accurately known. This is called time base.
The time base consist of a fixed frequency crystal oscillator, called a clock oscillator, which has to be
very accurate. In order to ensure its accuracy, the crystal is enclosed in a constant temperature oven. The
output of this constant frequency oscillator is fed to a Schmitt trigger, which converts the input sine wave
to an output consisting of a train of pulses at a rate equal to the frequency of the clock oscillator. The train of
pulses then passes through a series of frequency.

divider decade assemblies connected in cascade. Each decade divider consists of a decade counter and
divides the frequency by ten. Outputs are taken from each decade frequency divider by means of a selector
switch; any output may be selected.

The circuit of Fig. 4.8 consists of a clock oscillator having a 1 MHz frequency. The output of the Schmitt
trigger is 106 pulses per second and this point corresponds to a time of 1 microsecond. Hence by using a 6
decade frequency divider, a time base with a range of 1 ms – 10 ms – 100 ms – 1 ms – 10 ms – 100 ms –
1 s can be selected using a selector switch.

4.4.2 Measurement of Time (Period Measurement)

In some cases it is necessary to measure the time period rather than the frequency. This is especially true
in the measurement of frequency in the low frequency range. To obtain good accuracy at low frequency,
we should take measurements of the period, rather than make direct frequency measurements. The circuit
used for measuring frequency can be used for the measurement of time period if the counted signal and
gating signal are interchanged. Figure 4.7 shows the circuit for measurement of time period. The gating
signal is derived from the unknown input signal, which now controls the enabling and disabling of the main
gate. The number of pulses which occur during one period of the unknown signal are counted and displayed
by the decade counting assemblies. The only disadvantage is that for measuring the frequency in the low
frequency range, the operator has to calculate the frequency from the time by using the equation f = 1/T.

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Fig. 6.8 Time base selector

Fig. 4.5 Basic block diagram of time measurement

For example, when measuring the period of a 60 Hz frequency, the electronic counter might display
16.6673 ms, hence the frequency is

The accuracy of the period measurement and hence of frequency can be greatly increased by using the
multiple period average mode of operation. In this mode, the main gate is enabled for more than one period
of the unknown signal. This is obtained by passing the unknown signal through one or more decade divider
assemblies (DDAs) so that the period is extended by a factor of 10,000 or more.
Hence the digital display shows more digital of information, thus increasing accuracy. However, the
decimal point location and measurement units are usually changed each time an additional decade divider
is added, so that the display is always in terms of the period of one cycle of the input signal, even though
the measurements may have lasted for 10,100 or more cycles.
Figure 4.8 show the multiple average mode of operation. In this circuit, five more decade dividing
assemblies are added so that the gate is now enabled for a much longer interval of time than it was with
single DDA.

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Fig. 4.6 Block diagram of a single and multiple period (average) measurement

4.5 FUNCTION GENERATOR

A function generator produces different waveforms of adjustable frequency. The common output
waveforms are the sine, square, triangular and sawtooth waves. The frequency may be adjusted, from a
fraction of a Hertz to several hundred kHz. The various outputs of the generator can be made available at
the same time. For example, the generator can provide a square wave to test the linearity of an amplifi er
and simultaneously provide a sawtooth to drive the horizontal deflection amplifi er of the CRO to provide
a visual display.
Capability of Phase Lock The function generator can be phase locked to an external source. One
function generator can be used to lock a second function generator, and the two output signals can be
displaced in phase by adjustable amount. In addition, the fundamental frequency of one generator can be
phase locked to a harmonic of another generator, by adjusting the amplitude and phase of the harmonic,
almost any waveform can be generated by addition. The function generator can also be phase locked to a
frequency standard and all its output waveforms will then have the same accuracy and stability as the
standard source. The block diagram of a function generator is illustrated in Fig. 4.9. Usually, the frequency
is controlled by varying the capacitor in the LC or RC circuit. In this instrument the frequency is controlled
by varying the magnitude of current which drives the integrator. The instrument produces sine, triangular
and square waves with a frequency range of 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz.

Fig. 4.7 Function Generator

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The frequency-controlled voltage regulates two current sources. The upper current source supplies
constant current to the integrator whose output voltage increases linearly with time, according to the
equation of the output signal voltage.

An increase or decrease in the current increases or decreases the slope of the output voltage and hence
controls the frequency.
The voltage comparator multivibrator changes states at a pre-determined maximum level of the integrator
output voltage. This change cuts off the upper current supply and switches on the lower current supply.
The lower current source supplies a reverse current to the integrator, so that its output decreases linearly
with time. When the output reaches a pre-determined minimum level, the voltage comparator again changes
state and switches on the upper current source.
The output of the integrator is a triangular waveform whose frequency is determined by the magnitude of
the current supplied by the constant current sources.
The comparator output delivers a square wave voltage of the same frequency. The resistance diode network
alters the slope of the triangular wave as its amplitude changes and produces a sine wave with less than 1%
distortion.

4.6 WHEATSTONE’S BRIDGE (MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE)

Wheatstone’s bridge is the most accurate method available for measuring resistances and is popular
for laboratory use. The circuit diagram of a typical Wheatstone bridge is given in Fig. 11.1. The source of
emf and switch is connected to points A and B, while a sensitive current indicating meter, the galvanometer,
is connected to points C and D. The galvanometer is a sensitive microammeter, with a zero-center scale.
When there is no current through the meter, the galvanometer pointer rests at 0, i.e. mid-scale. Current in
one direction causes the pointer to deflect on one side and current in the opposite direction to the other side.
When SW1 is closed, current flows and divides into the two arms at point A, i.e. I1 and I2. The
bridge is balanced when there is no current through the galvanometer, or when the potential difference at
points C and D is equal, i.e. the potential across the galvanometer is zero.

Fig. 11.1 Wheatstone’s Bridge

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4.6.1 Sensitivity of a Wheatstone Bridge
When the bridge is in an unbalanced condition, current flows through the galvanometer, causing a
deflection of its pointer. The amount of deflection is a function of the sensitivity of the galvanometer.
Sensitivity can be thought of as deflection per unit current. A more sensitive galvanometer deflects by a
greater amount for the same current. Deflection may be expressed in linear or angular units of measure, and
sensitivity can be expressed in units of S = mm/ µA or degree/µA or radians/µA.
Therefore, it follows that the total deflection D is D = S ¥ I, where S is defined above and I is the
current in microamperes.

4.6.2 Unbalanced Wheatstone’s Bridge

To determine the amount of deflection that would
result for a particular degree of unbalance, general circuit
analysis can be applied, but we shall use Thevenin’s
theorem.
Since we are interested in determining the current
through the galvanometer, we wish to find the
Thévenin’s equivalent, as seen by the galvanometer.
Thévenin’s equivalent voltage is found by
disconnecting the galvanometer from the bridge circuit,
as shown in Fig. 4.11 and determining the open circuit
Fig 11.2 Unbalanced Wheatstone’s bridge
voltage between terminals a and b.
Applying the voltage divider equation, the voltage at point a can be determined as follows

Therefore, the voltage between a and b is the difference between Ea and Eb, which represents Thévenin’s
equivalent voltage.

Therefore

Thévenin’s equivalent resistance can be

determined by replacing the voltage source E
with its internal impedance or otherwise short-
circuited and calculating the resistance looking
into terminals a and b. Since the internal
resistance is assumed to be very low, we treat it
as 0 Ω. Thévenin’s equivalent resistance circuit
is shown in Fig.
Fig. 11.3 Thévenin’s resistance

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Therefore, Thévenin’s equivalent circuit is given in Fig.

4.13. Thévenin’s equivalent circuit for the bridge, as seen
looking back at terminals a and b in Fig. 4.11, is shown in
Fig. 4.13.
If a galvanometer is connected across the terminals a and
b of Fig. 4.11, or its Thévenin equivalent Fig. 4.13 it will
experience the same defl ection at the output of the bridge.
The magnitude of current is limited by both Thévenin’s
equivalent resistance and any resistance connected between
a and b. The resistance between a and b consists only of the Fig. 11.4 Thévenin’s equivalent
galvanometer resistance Rg. The deflection current
in the galvanometer is therefore given by

(11.5)

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4.6.3 Slightly Unbalanced Wheatstone’s Bridge

If three of the four resistor in a bridge are equal to
R and the fourth differs by 5% or less, we can
develop an approximate but accurate expression
for Thévenin’s equivalent voltage and resistance.
Consider the circuit in Fig. 4.15. The voltage at
point a is

Fig. 11.7 Slightly unbalanced Wheatstone’s bridge

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Fig. 11.8Thévenin’s equivalent of a slightly

unbalanced Wheatstone’s bridge

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4.6.4 Application of Wheatstone’s Bridge

A Wheatstone bridge may be used to measure the dc resistance of various types of wire, either for
the purpose of quality control of the wire itself, or of some assembly in which it is used. For example, the
resistance of motor windings, transformers, solenoids, and relay coils can be measured.
Wheatstone’s bridge is also used extensively by telephone companies and others to locate cable
faults. The fault may be two lines shorted together, or a single line shorted to ground.
4.6.5 Limitations of Wheatstone’s Bridge
For low resistance measurement, the resistance of the leads and contacts becomes significant and
introduces an error. This can be eliminated by Kelvin’s Double bridge.
For high resistance measurements, the resistance presented by the bridge becomes so large that the
galvanometer is insensitive to imbalance. Therefore, a power supply has to replace the battery and a dc
VTVM replaces the galvanometer. In the case of high resistance measurements in mega ohms, the
Wheatstones bridge cannot be used.
Another difficulty in Wheatstone’s bridge is the change in resistance of the bridge arms due to the
heating effect of current through the resistance. The rise in temperature causes a change in the value of the
resistance, and excessive current may cause a permanent change in value.
4.7 AC BRIDGES
Impedances at AF or RF are commonly
determined by means of an ac Wheatstone bridge. The
diagram of an ac bridge is given in Fig. 4,13. This
bridge is similar to a dc bridge, except that the bridge
arms are impedances. The bridge is excited by an ac
source rather than dc and the galvanometer is replaced
by a detector, such as a pair of headphones, for
detecting ac. When the bridge is balanced,

Fig. 11.17 AC Wheatstone’s Bridge

where Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are the impedances of the arms, and are vector complex
quantities that possess phase angles. It is thus necessary to adjust both the magnitude and phase
angles of the impedance arms to achieve balance, i.e. the bridge must be balanced for both the
reactance and the resistive component.

4.8 CAPACITANCE COMPARISON BRIDGE

Fig. 4.17 Capacitance comparison bridge

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The condition for balance of the bridge is

Two complex quantities are equal when both their real and their imaginary terms are equal. Therefore,

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4.9 INDUCTANCE COMPARISON BRIDGE

4.18

The equation for balance condition is

The inductive balance equation yields

and resistive balance equations yields

Fig. 4.18 Inductance comparison bridge

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4.10 INDUCTANCE COMPARISON BRIDGE

4.19

The equation for balance condition is

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The inductive balance equation yields

and resistive balance equations yields

Fig. 4.19 Inductance comparison bridge

4.11 WIEN’S BRIDGE

The Wien bridge shown in Fig. 4.20
has a series RC combination in one arm
and a parallel combination in the adjoining
arm. Wien’s bridge in its basic form, is
designed to measure frequency. It can also
be used for the measurement of an
unknown capacitor with great accuracy.
The impedance of one arm is

The admittance of the parallel arm is

4.20 Wein’s bridge

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In most Wien bridge circuits, the components are chosen such that R1 - R3 - R and C1
- C3 - C. Equation therefore reduces to R2/R4 = 2 , which is the general equation for the
frequency of the bridge circuit.
The bridge is used for measuring frequency in the audio range. Resistances R1 and R3
can be ganged together to have identical values. Capacitors C1 and C3 are normally of fixed
values.
The audio range is normally divided into 20 – 200 – 2 k – 20 kHz ranges.
In this case, the resistances can be used for range changing and capacitors C1 and C3
for fi ne frequency control within the range. The bridge can also be used for measuring
capacitances. In that case, the frequency of operation must be known.
The bridge is also used in a harmonic distortion analyzer, as a Notch filter, and in
audio frequency and radio frequency oscillators as a frequency determining element.
An accuracy of 0.5% – 1% can be readily obtained using this bridge. Because it is
frequency sensitive, it is difficult to balance unless the waveform of the applied voltage is
purely sinusoidal.

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