Module II

DC generator –principle of operation, EMF equation, excitation,

armature reaction–demagnetising and cross magnetising ampere turn,
compensating windings, interpoles, commutation, OCC, voltage build up
and load characteristics, parallel operation. Power flow diagram–
numerical problems
 DC Generator – Principle of operation

Magnetic fields
Faradays Law
• Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction: -
The induced electromotive force (EMF or voltage) in any closed circuit is equal to the negative of the
time rate of change of the magnetic flux enclosed by the circuit. For a coil of wire of N turns EMF is
given as: -

The negative sign indicates that the direction of EMF is opposite to the source that produces it

−𝑑∅
is the number of magnetic field lines that a conductor intersects per unit time
𝑑𝑡
Lorentz’s forces
Single conductor Experiment in a
magnetic field – a generator point
of view
Lorentz’s Law
• When a conductor is moved in a magnetic field, the electrons experience a force
which causes current to flow in the conductor and this current is mutually
perpendicular to the direction of the field and the force applied. [For Generators]
F = Bqvsinθ
• Where θ is the angle between the wire and the magnetic field.
• q = charge
• v = velocity of electrons
• B = magnetic field strength
Lorentz’s Single conductor Experiment in a magnetic field – in a
generator
Distribution of flux
• dφ/dt = number of lines that the conductor intersects (passes through) per unit time
• dφ/dt = 0 because the direction of conductor movement is parallel to the direction
of flux
Induced emf in a loop

POSITION 1
Induced emf in a loop

POSITION 2
Induced emf in a loop

POSITION 3
Induced emf in a loop

POSITION 4
Induced emf in a loop

POSITION 5
COMMUTATORS
• Direction of current in the conductor
Brushes
• Position of sliprings and brushes
Rectified output waveform
Electromagnetic energy conversion
Flemings right hand rule
• Used to determine the direction of emf ductor
• The middle finger , the fore finger and thumb of
the
• left hand are kept at right angles to one another.
▪ The fore finger represent the direction of
magnetic field
▪ The thumb represent the direction of motion of
the conductor
▪ The middle finger will indicate the direction of
the inducted emf .
▪ This rule is used in DC Generators
• A generator works on the principles of Faraday’s
law of electromagnetic induction
• Whenever a conductor is moved in the magnetic
field , an emf is induced and the magnitude of the
induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of
change of flux linkage.
• This emf causes a current flow if the conductor
circuit is closed .
Power generated- for a generator
Emf Equation
• Flux cut by 1 conductor in 1 revolution = P * φ
• Flux cut by 1 conductor in / sec = P φ N /60
• Average emf generated in 1 conductor = PφN/60
• Number of conductors in each parallel path = Z /A

∅𝑍𝑁 𝑃
𝐸𝑔 =
60 𝐴
Types of DC generators
DC generators are generally classified according to their method of excitation:
• Separately excited DC generator
• Self excited D C generator

Further it can be classified according into:-

• Series wound generator
• Shunt wound generator
• Compound wound generator
• Short shunt & Long shunt
Armature reaction
The armature reaction simply shows the effect of armature field on the
main field. In other words, the armature reaction represents the impact
of the armature flux on the main field flux.
The effect of magnetic field set up by armature current on the
distribution of flux under main poles of a generator. The armature
magnetic field has two effects:
(i) It demagnetises or weakens the main flux and
(ii) It cross-magnetises or distorts it.
•The main field in a DC generator is produced by field coils.
•In both the generating and motoring modes, the armature carries current
and a magnetic field is established, which is called the armature flux.
•The effect of this armature flux on the main field is called the armature
reaction.
•Armature reaction has two undesirable effects, either it distorts the main
field, or it reduces the main field flux (or both).
•When the main field gets distorted, it is known as a cross magnetizing
effect.
•And when the main field flux gets reduced, it is known as the
demagnetizing effect.
Effect of armature reaction
1. . Armature reaction weakens the main flux. In case
of a dc generator, weakening of the main flux
reduces the generated voltage

1. Armature reaction distorts the main flux, hence the

position of M.N.A. gets shifted (M.N.A. is
perpendicular to the flux lines of main field flux).
Brushes should be placed on the M.N.A.,
otherwise, it will lead to sparking at the surface of
brushes. So, due to armature reaction, it is hard to
determine the exact position of the MNA
• The plane through the axis, along which no emf is induced in the
armature conductors is known as magnetic neutral axis.

• The current flowing in the armature conductors creates a magnetising

effect or mmf that is at right angles to the main flux. This magnetising
action is called cross magnetisation
• The cross magnetisation effect distorts the field in the air gap, this has
two effects
• Creation of magnetic field in the interpolar region where the brushes
are kept
• Weakened field strength under leading end and strengthened field
under trailing pole tips
• When the brushes lie in the GNA
the entire armature reaction is
cross magnetising
• Brushes kept in MNA – a part of
armature reaction is cross
magnetisation and a part is
demagnetisation
The armature mmf (depending on the strength of the armature current) is shown
separately both in magnitude and direction by the vector OFA. Under actual load
conditions, the two mmf exist simultaneously in the generator as shown in Fig. It is seen
that the flux through the armature is no longer uniform and symmetrical about the pole
axis, rather it has been distorted. The flux is seen to be crowded at the trailing pole tips
but weakened or thinned out at the leading pole tips (the pole tip which is first met during
rotation by armature conductors is known as the leading pole tip and the other as trailing
pole tip). The strengthening and weakening of flux is separately shown for a four-pole
machine in Fig.
MMF AND FLUX VARIATION IN AN UNLOADED MACHINE
MMF WAVEFORM WHEN ARMATURE CONDUCTORS ALONE CARRYING CUTTENTS
MMF WAVEFORM WITH ARMATURE REACTION
MMF WAVEFORM DUE TO SHIFTING OF BRUSHES
Demagnetising and Cross-magnetising Conductors: All conductors lying
within angles AOC = BOD = 2θ at the top and bottom of the armature, are
carrying current in such a direction as to send the flux through the armature
from right to left. It is these conductors which act in direct opposition to the
main field and are hence called the demagnetising armature conductors.
• Consider the remaining armature conductors lying between angles AOD and COB. These
conductors carry current in such a direction as to produce a flux at right angles to the
main flux resulting in distortion of the main field. Hence, these conductors are known as
cross-magnetising conductors and constitute distorting ampere-conductors.
• Since armature demagnetising ampere-turns are neutralized by adding extra ampereturns
to the main field winding, it is essential to calculate their number. But before proceeding
further, it should be remembered that the number of turns is equal to half the number of
conductors because two conductors-constitute one turn.

Let Z = total number of armature conductors

I = current in each armature conductor
= Ia/2 ... for simplex wave winding
= Ia/P ... for simplex lap winding

θm = forward lead in angular degrees.

 4𝜃𝑚
Total number of armature conductors in angles AOC and BOD is 𝑥𝑍
360
As two conductors constitute one turn
The armature reaction effect can be reduced by providing compensating windings and
interpoles
 COMPENSATING WINDINGS
• Used with generator supplying heavy loads

• Auxiliary winding embedded in slots located in

the faces of main poles.

• Compensating winding is connected in series

with armature
• The direction of current in the compensating winding will be opposite to that of the
adjacent conductor.
• The mmf produced by compensating winding will be equal to the mmf produced by
armature conductors.
• Current in compensating winding is equal to armature current 𝐼𝑎
• However current in each conductor is armature current divided by the number of parallel
paths
𝑍𝐶 = No. of compensating conductors/pole face
𝑍𝑎 = No. of active armature conductors/pole,
𝐼𝑎 = Total armature current
𝐼𝑎
= current of armature conductor
𝐴
𝐼𝑎
𝑍𝑐 . 𝐼𝑎 = 𝑍𝑎 𝐴
𝑍
No. of armature conductors/pole =
𝑃
𝑍
No. of armature turns/pole = 2.𝑃
𝑍 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑐
No. of armature-turns immediately under one pole =2.𝑃 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
𝑍
= 0.7 .
2.𝑃
1. A 4 pole generator has 640 conductors and it delivers 100A on full load. If the
brush has a lead of 8 deg mech , Calculate demagnetising and cross magnetising
AT if the machine is wave connected.
Soln:
P=4
A=2
Z=640
𝐼𝑎 = 100
Current in a conductor = I= Ia/A=

Atd =711.11
Atc =6577.8
2. A 22.38kW,440V,4 pole wave wound dc shunt motor has 940 armature conductors
and 140 segments. Its full load efficiency is 88% and the shunt field current is 1.8A.
If the brushes are shifted backwards through 1.5 segments from the geometrical
neutral axis ,find the demagnetising and cross magnetising AT/pole

Solution:
A 90 kW,450V, 4 pole dc shunt generator has a wave connected armature of 820
conductors. If the brushes are given an actual lead of 10degree, determine the
demagnetising and cross magnetising AT/ pole. Assume the resistance of the shunt field
winding 90ohms.
 Module II
DC generator –principle of operation, EMF equation, excitation,
armature reaction–demagnetising and cross magnetising ampere turn,
compensating windings, interpoles, commutation, OCC, voltage build up
and load characteristics, parallel operation. Power flow diagram–
numerical problems
 Commutation
• Conductors pass out of the influence of a N-
pole and enter that of S-pole, the current is
reversed.

• This reversal of current takes place along

magnetic neutral axis or brush.
• This process by which current in the short-
circuited coil is reversed while it crosses the
M.N.A. is called commutation.
• The brief period during which coil remains
short-circuited is known as commutation
period Tc.
• If the current reversal i.e. the change from +
I to zero and then to − I is completed by the
end of commutation period, then the
commutation is ideal.
• If current reversal is not complete by that
time, then sparking is produced between the
brush and the commutator which results in
progressive damage to both
Methods of Improving Commutation:

(i) Resistance commutation

(ii) Emf. Commutation

Resistance commutation
• Use of high resistance carbon brushes instead of copper
brushes.

• Advantages of carbon brush

(i) Self lubricating and polish the commutator.
(ii) Damage the commutator less than when Cu brushes.

• Disadvantages
(i) Contact resistance being higher a brush drop of 2V is caused.
(ii) High resistance - commutator has be made large to dissipate heat.
(iii) Low current density for carbon brush hence brush holders.
EMF Commutation:
Neutralize the reactance voltage by producing a reversing emf in the short-circuited coil under commutation.
The reversing emf may be produced in two ways:
(i) By giving the brushes a forward lead
(ii) By using interpoles.

Interpoles or Compoles:
Small poles fixed to the yoke and spaced in between the main poles.
Wound with comparatively few heavy gauge Cu wire turns and connected in series with the armature
Their polarity, in the case of a generator, is the same as that of the main pole ahead in the direction of rotation.
The function of interpoles is two-fold:

(i) Polarity is the same as that of the main pole ahead, for generators.
Enables quick reversal.

(ii) Neutralises the cross-magnetising effect of armature reaction.

Shifting of brushes not required.
Characteristics of DC Generators
There are 3 main characteristics of DC generators

1. No load saturation characteristics. (OCC)

No load generated voltage Vs Field current
2. Internal Characteristics
Induced emf Vs Armature current.
3. External characteristics
Terminal voltage on load Vs Load current

Separately excited Generator

Here E = Kφ at constant speed hence same as magnetisation curve

External characteristics

Due to armature reaction drop in voltage is

represented.

Drop in terminal voltage due to

𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚

The voltage drop due to armature resistance alone can

be deduced from the curves II and III.

Advantages
Operation is stable with any field excitation
Wide voltage ranges can be possible
Characteristics of separately excited generator
Disadvantages
Separate excitation source required and hence cost is
high.
Used in testing labs.
Series generators- Characteristics
Curve I represents magnetic characteristics. It starts from F
representing residual magnetism.

Due to demagnetisation effect due to armature reaction, the

internal characteristics lies below the magnetic
characteristics (II).

The external characteristics will be still below the internal

characteristics because of the voltage drop in armature and
series field resistances.(III)
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑔 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒

It should be noted that armature current = load current = field

Characteristics of series generator
current.

Voltage drop due to resistances can be deduced from the

characteristics II and III
Shunt generators- Characteristics

• Residual magnetism
• aa’ is maximum voltage generated
Critical resistance

If the field resistance is increased from OA to OB and to OC the

generated emf at field resistance line OC will be o𝑐1 .This line
is called the critical resistance line and the field resistance
corresponding to it is critical resistance.

Further increase in field resistance the machine will not excite.

For the machine to excite:
1. Residual field must be present.
2. The polarity of excitation must aid the residual
magnetism.
3. The field circuit resistance must be below the critical
value.
4. The speed of operation of the machine must be above
the critical speed.
5. The load resistance must be very large.
LOAD TEST ON DC Generator
Load Characteristics
The terminal voltage on no load depends on 𝑅𝑓
When machine is loaded
• Armature drop increases
• The brush drop increases
• Armature reaction increases with load making terminal voltage to fall

• Effects are cumulative, as the load increases the voltage drop also
increase .
• Further increase in load will increase the armature reaction and voltage
drop causing decrease in current hence the characteristic turns back.
• When terminals are shorted then terminal voltage is zero and current
through the field winding will be zero. However a small voltage will be
induced in the field due to residual magnetism.

Critical Load resistance

Line through the origin and tangential to internal characteristic is drawn
and its gradient will give the external load resistance for which the machine
will excite on load. This resistance is critical load resistance
 𝑻𝒐 𝒅𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑶𝑪𝑪 𝒂𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒔
If the flux is kept constant then generated emf is directly proportional to speed
𝐸1 𝛼 𝑁1 , 𝐸2 𝛼 𝑁2

𝐸1 𝑁1
=
𝐸2 𝑁2

𝑁
Or 𝐸2 = 𝐸1 𝑁2
1
The open circuit characteristic of a separately excited dc generator running at 1000 rpm is as follows

𝑰𝒇 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

(A)
𝐸𝑜 30 55 75 90 100 110 115 120

If the machine is connected as shunt generator and driven at 1000rpm and has a field resistance of 100ohms,
obtain (i) OC voltage and exciting current (ii) the critical resistance (iii) resistance to induce 115V on open circuit
POWER STAGES OF DC GENERATOR
A 10kW shunt generator having resistances 1ohm and 100ohms in its armature and field delivers full load at a
terminal voltage of 230V. Determine the efficiency at full load assume iron , friction and windage losses as
500W.

Solution
10 𝑥1000
Current delivered to the load = 230 = 43.47𝐴
𝑉 230
𝐼𝑠ℎ = = = 2.3𝐴
𝑅𝑠ℎ 100
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑙 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ = 43.47 + 2.3 = 45.77𝐴

Electrical power developed in armature = Output power + copper losses

𝐸𝑔 x𝐼𝑎 = 𝑉. 𝐼𝑙 + 𝐼𝑎2 . 𝑅𝑎 = 230x43.47 = (45.77)2 x1 =10000 +2094.89 =12094.89W

Power input to the machine = Electrical power developed + friction, iron and windage losses
= 12094.89 + 500 =12594.89

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 10000

Efficiency = = = 79.39%
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 12594.89
Solution

𝑉 250
Shunt current = 𝐼𝑠ℎ = = = 5𝐴
𝐼𝑠ℎ 50
Copper losses = 𝐼𝑎2 𝑅𝑎
To find 𝐼𝑎
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑙 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ = 195 + 5 = 200𝐴
Power developed in the armature =𝐸𝑔 . 𝐼𝑎 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 . 𝑅𝑎 . 𝐼𝑎 = 250 + 200 ∗ .02 200 = 50800

Output from prime mover = Power developed +friction, iron and windage losses = 50800 + 950 = 51750W

𝐸𝑔 .𝐼𝑎 51800
Mechanical efficiency = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 51750 = 98.16
𝑉.𝐼 195∗250
Commercial efficiency=𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = = 94.2%
51750
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝐼 250∗195 48750
Electrical Efficiency = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑
= 𝐸𝑔 .𝐼𝑎
= 254∗200
= 50800 = 95.96%
CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY OF DC GENERATOR
 Tutorial 3
Qn1. A Short shunt compound dc generator supplies a current of 100A at a voltage of 220V. If the resistance of the
shunt field is 50ohms, of the series field 0.025ohms, of the armature 0.05ohms, the total brush drop is 2V and friction
and iron losses amounts to 1000watts. Find (i) the generated emf, (ii)copper losses , (iii) Power input to generator,
(iv)and the generator efficiency.

Qn2.A 20kW,440V, short shunt compound generator has a full load efficiency of 87%. If the resistance of armature and
interpoles is 0.04ohms and series field and shunt fields 0.25ohms and 240ohms respectively, calculate the combined
bearing friction, windage and core loss of the machine.
 PARALLEL OPERATION OF DC GENERATORS
Why parallel operation?

i. Service continuity.
Single large generator is used in the power plant, then in case of its breakdown, the whole plant will be
shut down. However, if power is supplied from a number of small units operating in parallel, then in
case of failure of one unit, the continuity of supply can be maintained by other healthy units.
ii. Efficient working.
Generators run most efficiently when loaded to their rated capacity. Electric power costs less per kWh
when the generator producing it is efficiently loaded. Therefore, when load demand on power plant
decreases, one or more generators can be shut down and the remaining units can be efficiently loaded.
iii. Repair facility.
Generators generally require routine-maintenance and repair. Therefore, if generators are operated in
parallel, the routine or emergency operations can be performed by isolating the affected generator while the
load is being supplied by other units. This leads to both safety and economy.
iv. Extension facility.
In the modern world of increasing population, the use of electricity is continuously
increasing. When added capacity is required, the new unit can be simply paralleled with
the old units. In many situations, a single unit of desired large capacity may not be
available. In that case, a number of smaller units can be operated in parallel to meet the
load requirement. Generally, a single large unit is more expensive.

v. Non-availability of single large unit: In many situations, a single unit of desired large
capacity may not be available. In that case a number of smaller units can be operated in
parallel to meet the load requirement. Generally a single large unit is more expensive.
Conditions for Parallel Operation of DC Generators :
To connects the generators in parallel to common bus-bars, the generators should satisfy
the following conditions:-
• The incoming generator's voltage should be the same as the bus-bar voltage.
• The +ve and -ve terminals ( i.e. polarity ) of generators must be connected to +ve and -
ve of bus-bars ( otherwise a serious short-circuit will occur ).
• Equalizer bar should be used for compound and series generators.
• Induced e.m.f’s of generators should be preferably the same ( otherwise circulating
currents result ).
SHUNT GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
SERIES GENERATORS IN PARALLEL

• DC series generators are not usually operated in parallel.

• DC series generators are put in parallel for electric traction purposes to provide electric
braking of motors in electric trains, cars etc.
Equalizer Bar or Ring
Two identical series generators G1 and G2 are connected in
parallel. Let the shunt resistances be equal and E1 and E2 are
initially equal and generators supply equal current. When
E1 increases slightly ( E1 > E2 ). In that case, I1 becomes greater
than I2.

Consequently, the field through generator G1 is strengthened

thus increasing E1 further whist the field of generator G2 is
weakened thus decreasing E2 further. At a stage when G1 supplies
power not only to the whole load but also supplies power to
G2 making it to run as a motor. Here, the two machines will form a
short-circuited loop and the current will rise in the loop.

This condition can be prevented by placing an equalizing bar

between two generators because of which two machines passes
similarly equal currents to the load, the slight difference between
the two currents are adjusted in the loop is made by the armatures
and the equalizer bar.
COMPOUND GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
• The condition of parallel operation with compound generators are similar to that of
series generators in parallel.
• Equaliser connection has to be provided to overcome this.
• Proper division of load is possible , the essential conditions are
I. The regulation of each generator is the same
II. The series field resistance are inversely proportional to the generator rating
Qn. Two DC shunt generators with induced emfs of 120V and 115V, armature resistance of 0.05Ω and 0.04Ω
and field resistances of 20Ω and 25Ω respectively are in parallel supplying a total load of 25kW. Calculate the
load shared by each generator?