NSCP DEFINITION OF TERMS

1 - GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
BUILDING, EXISTING, is a building erected prior
SECTION 102 - DEFINITIONS to the adoption of this code, or one for which a
legal building permit has been issued.
For the purpose of this code, certain terms,
phrases, words, and their derivatives shall be BUILDING OFFlCIAL is the officer or other
construed as specified in this chapter and designated authority charged with the
elsewhere in this code where specific administration and enforcement of this code, 0r
definitions are provided. Terms, phrases and the building official's duly authorized
words used in the singular include the plural representative.
and the plural, the singular. Terms, phrases and
words used in the masculine gender include the LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN (LRFD)
feminine and the feminine, the masculine. METHOD is a method of proportioning
structural element using load and resistance
The following terms are defined for use in this factors such that no applicable limit state is
chapter: reached when the structure is subjected to all
ADDITION is an extension or increase in floor appropriate load combinations. The term
area or height of a building or structure. "LRFD" is used in the design of steel and wood
structures.
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN is a method of
proportioning structural elements such that STRENGTH DESIGN is a method of
computed stresses produced in the elements by proportioning structural elements such that the
the allowable stress load combinations do not computed forces produced in the elements by
exceed specified allowable stress (also called the factored load combinations do not exceed
working stress design). the factored element strength. The term
"strength design" is used in the design of
ALTER or ALTERATION is any change, addition concrete and masonry structures.
or modification in construction or occupancy.
STRUCTURE is that which is built or
APPROVED as to materials and types of constructed, an edifice or building of any kind,
construction, refers to approval by the building or any piece of work artificially built up or
official as the result of investigation and tests composed of parts joined together in some
conducted by the building official, or by reason definite manner.
of accepted principles or tests by recognized
authorities, technical or scientific organizations. STRUCTURAL ENGINEER is a registered Civil
Engineer with special qualification in the
BUILDING is any structure used or intended for practice of Structural Engineering as recognized
supporting or sheltering any use or occupancy. by the Board of Civil Engineering of the
Professional Regulation Commission.

SECTION 103 - CLASSIFICATION OF BUILDINGS

Buildings and other structures shall be Chapter 2, and other provisions. Each building
classified, based on the nature of occupancy, or other structure shall be assigned to the
according to Table 103-1 for purposes of highest applicable category.
applying wind and earthquake provisions in For buildings or other structures having multiple
 independent structural systems, each occupancy or functions dependent on the
independent structural system shall be assigned particular independent structural system.
to the highest applicable category based on the

Table 103-1 – Occupancy Category (See Notes)

OCCUPANCY OCCUPANCY OR FUNCTIONS
CATEGORY OF STRUCTURES

Occupancies having surgery and emergency

treatment areas,
Fire and police stations,
Garages and shelters for emergency
vehicles and emergency aircraft,
Structures and shelters in
emergency preparedness centers,
I. Essential Aviation control towers,
Facilities Structures and equipment in
communication centers and other facilities required for
emergency response,
Standby power-generating equipment for
Category I facilities,
Tanks or other structures containing housing or supporting
water or other fire-suppression material or equipment
required for the protection of Category I, II or III structures.

Occupancies and structures therein housing or supporting toxic

or explosive chemicals or substances,
II. Hazardous Non building structures housing, supporting or containing
Facilities quantities of toxic or explosive substances.

Buildings with an assembly room with an occupant capacity of 1,000

or more,
Educational buildings with a capacity of
300 or more students,
Buildings used for college or adult
III. Special Occupancy Structures education with a capacity of 500 or
more students,
Institutional buildings with 50 or more
incapacitated patients, but not included in Category I,

Mental hospitals, sanitariums. jails, prison and other buildings

where personal liberties of inmates are similarly restrained
All structures with an occupancy 5,000 or more persons, Structures
and equipment in power- generating stations, and
other public utility facilities not included in Category I or
Category II above and required for continued operation.
 IV. Standard Occupancy All structures housing occupancies or having functioned not
Structures listed in Category I, II or III above and Category V below.

V. Miscellaneous Private garages, carports, sheds, agricultural buildings, and fences

Structures over 1.8 meters high.

Notes:

1. Equivalent building classification on the National Building Code of the Philippines and its
Implementing Rules and Regulations.

I. Essential Facilities ------------------------------------- None

II. Hazardous Facilities --------------------------------- Group 6

III. Special Occupancy Structures ------------------ Group C, Group D, Group H, Group I

IV Standard Occupancy Structures ---------------- Group A, Group B Group E, Group F

V. Miscellaneous Structures ------------------------- Group J

2 - MINIMUM DESIGN REQUIREMENTS elements by the allowable stress load
combinations do not exceed specified allowable
SECTION 201 -GENERAL stress.

201.1 SCOPE ASSEMBLY BUILDING is a building or portion of

a building for the gathering together of 50 or
This chapter provides minimum design load more persons for such purposes as deliberation,
requirements for the design of buildings and education, instruction, worship, entertainment,
other vertical structures. Loads and appropriate amusement, drinking or dining or awaiting
load combinations, which have been developed, transportation.
to be used together for strength design and
allowable stress design are set forth. AWNING is a shelter supported entirely from
the exterior wall of a building.
201.2 RECOGNIZED STANDARDS
BALCONY, EXTERIOR, is an exterior floor system
The standards listed below are recognized projecting from a structure and supported by
standards for wind loads. that structure, with no additional independent
supports.
1. ASCE 7, Chapter 6, Minimum Design Loads
for Buildings and Other Structures DEAD LOADS consist of the weight of all
2. ANSI EIA/TIA 222-E, Structural Standards for materials and fixed equipment incorporated
Steel Antenna Towers and Antenna into the building or other structure.
Supporting Structures
3. ANSI/NAAMM FP1001, Guide Specifications DECK is an exterior floor system supported on
for the Design Loads of Metal Flagpoles at least two opposing sides by an adjoining
structure and/or posts, piers, or other
independent supports.
SECTION 202 - DEFINITIONS

ACCESS FLOOR SYSTEM is an assembly ESSENTIAL FACILITIES are buildings and other
consisting of panels mounted on pedestals to structures that are intended to remain
provide an under-floor space for the operational in the event of extreme
installations of mechanical, electrical, environmental loading from wind or
communications or similar systems or to serve earthquakes.
as an air-supply or return-air plenum.
FACTORED LOAD is the product of a load
AGRICULTURAL BUILDING is a structure specified in Sections 204 through 208 and a
designed to house farm implements, hay, grain, load factor. See Section 203.3 for combinations
poultry, livestock or other horticultural of factored loads.
products. The structure shall not be a place of
human habitation or a place of employment Section 203.3 LRFD = structures and all portions
where agricultural products are processed, thereof shall resist the most critical effects from
treated, or packaged nor shall it be a place used the following combinations of factor load.
by the public.
GARAGE is a building or portion thereof in
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN METHOD is a which motor vehicle containing flammable or
method of proportioning structural elements combustible liquids or gas in its tank is stored,
such that computed stresses produced in the repaired or kept.
GARAGE, PRIVATE, is a building or a portion of 1. Any metal or wood stud wall that supports
a building, not more than 90 sq.m. in area, in more than 0.5 kN per linear meter of
which only motor vehicles used by the tenants superimposed load.
of the building or buildings on the premises are 2. Any masonry or concrete wall that supports
kept or stored. more than 1.0 kN per linear meter
superimposed loads, or any such wall
LIMIT STATE is a condition in which a structure supporting its own weight for more than
or component Is judged either to be no longer one story.
useful for its Intended function (serviceability
limit state) or to be unsafe (strength limit state). EXTERIOR WALL is any wall or element of a
wall, or any member or group of members, that
LIVE LOADS are those loads produced by the defines the exterior boundaries or courts of a
use and occupancy of the building or other building and that has a slope of 60 degrees or
structure and do not include dead load, greater with the horizontal plane.
construction load, or environmental loads such
as wind load, snow load, rain load, earthquake NONBEARING WALL is any wall that is not a
load or floor load. bearing wall.

LOADS are forces or other actions that result PARAPET WALL is that part of any wall entirely
from the weight of all building materials, above the roof line.
occupants and their possessions, environmental
effects, differential movements, and restrained RETAINING WALL is a wall designed to resist the
dimensional changes. Permanent loads are lateral displacement of soil or other materials.
those loads in which variations over time are
rare or small magnitude. All other loads are
variable loads. 3 – FOUNDATION & EXCAVATION

SECTION 301 - GENERAL

MARQUEE is a permanent roofed structure
attached to and supported by the building and 301.1 SCOPE
projecting over public property.
This chapter sets forth requirements for
OCCUPANCY is the purpose for that a building, excavations, fills, footings and foundations for
or part thereof, is used or intended to be used. any building or structure.

STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD is a method of 301.2 QUALITY AND DESIGN

proportioning structural elements such that the
computed forces produced in the elements by The quality and design of materials used
the factored load combinations do not exceed structurally in excavations, fills, footings and
the factored element strength. The term foundations shall conform to the requirements
"strength design" is used in the design of specified in Chapters 4, S, 6 and 7.
concrete and masonry structures.
301.3 ALLOWABLE BEARING
WALLS: PRESSURES

BEARING WALL is any wall meeting either of Allowable stresses and design formulas
the following classifications: provided in this chapter shall be used with the
allowable stress design load combinations be made shall notify in writing the owners
specified in Section 203.4. of adjoining building not less than 10 days
before such excavation is to be made and
that the adjoining building should be
SECTION 302-FILLS AND EXCAVATION protected.

302.1 GENERAL FILLS

Excavation or fills for buildings or structures Fills to be used to support the foundation of any
shall be constructed or protected that they do building or structure shall be placed in
not endanger life or property. Reference is accordance in accepted engineering practice.
made to Section 109 of this code for
requirements governing excavation, grading No fill or other surcharge loads shall be placed
and earthwork construction, including fills and adjacent to any building or structure unless
embankments. such building or structure is capable of
withstanding the additional vertical and
CUTS horizontal loads caused by filling or surcharge.
Fill slopes shall not be constructed on natural
302.2.2 Slope. The slope of cut surfaces shall be slopes steeper than 1 unit vertical in 2 units
no steeper than is safe for the intended use and horizontal (50% slope).
shall be no steeper than 1 unit vertical in 2 units
horizontal (50% slope), unless a geo-technical 302.3.2 Preparation of the Ground. The ground
engineering or an engineering geology report, surface shall be prepared to receive fill by
or both, stating that the site has been removing vegetation, non-complying fill, topsoil
investigated and giving an opinion that a cut at ,and other unsuitable materials, and by
a steeper slope will be stable and not create a scarifying to provide a bond with the new fill.
hazard to public or private property, is Where the natural slopes are steeper than 1
submitted and approved. unit vertical in 5 units horizontal (20% slopes)
and the height is greater than 1.5 meters, the
302.2.3 Existing footings or foundations, which ground surface shall be prepared by benching
may be affected by any excavation, shall be into sound bedrock or other competent
underpinned adequately or otherwise materials as determined by the geo-technical
protected against settlement and shall be engineer. The bench under the toe of a fill on a
protected against lateral movement. slope steeper than 1units vertical of 5 units
horizontal (20% slopes) shall be at least 3
302.2.4 Protection of adjoining property. The meters wide.
requirement for protection of adjacent property
and the depth to which protection is required Study sections 302.3.3 –Fill Material
shall be defined by prevailing law. Where not Also the following:
defined by law, the following shall apply:
SETBACKS
1. Any person making or causing an DRAINAGE AND TERRACING
excavation shall protect the excavation so EROSION CONTROL
that the soil of adjoining property will not
cave in or settle, 4 – CONCRETE

2. Before commencing the excavation, the SECTlON 401 - GENERAL

person making or causing the excavation to
401.1.1 This chapter provides minimum ADMIXTURE is material other than water,
requirements for the design and construction of aggregate, or hydraulic cement used as an
structural concrete elements of any building or ingredient of concrete and added to concrete
other structure. before or during its mixing to modify its
properties.
401.1.2 This chapter shall govern in all matters
pertaining to the design, construction, and AGGREGATE is granular material, such as sand,
material properties of structural concrete gravel, crushed stone and iron blast-furnace
elements wherever this chapter is in with slag, and when used with a cementing medium
requirements contained in other standards forms a hydraulic cement concrete or mortar.
referenced in this chapter.
AGGREGATE, LIGHTWEIGHT is aggregate with a
401.1.3 For special structures, such as arches, dry, loose weight of 1120 kg/m3 or less.
tanks, reservoirs, bins and silos, blast-resistant
structures, and provisions of this chapter shall AIR-DRY WEIGHT is the unit weight of a
govern where applicable. lightweight concrete specimen cured for seven
days with neither loss nor gain of moisture at
401.1.4 This chapter does not govern design 15°C to 27’C and dried for 21 days in 50 +,- 7
and installation of portions of concrete piles' percent relative humidity at 23°C +,- 1. 1°C.
and drilled piers embedded in ground except
for structures in regions of high risk or assigned ANCHORAGE DEVICE in post-tensioning is a
to high seismic performance or categories. See device used to anchor tendons to concrete
Section 421.9.4 for requirements from concrete member; in pre-tensioning, a device used to
piles drilled piers and caissons in structures in anchor tendons during hardening of concrete.
region high seismic risk or assigned to high
seismic performance or design categories. ANCHORAGE ZONE in post-tensioned members
is the portion of the member through which the
401.1.5 This chapter does not govern design concentrated pre-stressing force is transferred
and construction of soil-supported slabs, unless to the concrete and distributed more uniformly
the slab vertical loads from other portions of across the section. Its extent is equal to the
the structure to the soil. largest dimension of the cross section. For
intermediate anchorage devices, the anchorage
401.1.6 Concrete On Steel Form Deck Design zone includes the disturbed regions ahead of
and construction of structural concrete slab cast and behind the anchorage devices.
on stay-in-place, non-composite steel other
governed by this chapter. BASIC MONOSTRAND ANCHORAGE DEVICE is
an anchorage device used with any single
401.1.7 This chapter does not govern the design strand or a single 16 mm or smaller diameter
of concrete slabs cast on stay-in-place, bar that satisfies section 418.22.1 and the
composite deck. Concrete used in the anchorage device requirements of the Post-
construction of such governed by Sections 401 Tensioning Institute's "Specification for
to 407 of this applicable. Unbonded Single Strand Tendons".

SECTION 402 - DEFINITIONS BASIC MULTISTRAND ANCHORAGE DEVICE is

an anchorage device used with multiple strands,
The following terms are defined for general use bars or wires, or single bars larger than 16 mm
in this chapter. Specialized definitions appear in diameter, that satisfies Section 418.22.1 and
individual sections. the bearing stress and minimum plate stiffness
requirements of AASHTO Bridge Specifications, of numerical value only is intended, and result
Division I, Sections [Link].2 through has units of megapascals.
[Link].4.
CONCRETE STRCTURAL LIGHTWEIGHT, is to
BONDED TENDON is a pre-stressing tendon that containing lightweight aggregate that conforms
is bonded to concrete either directly or through to 403.4 and has an air-dry unit weight as
grouting. determined “Test Method for Unit Weight of
Structural Lightweight Concrete” (ASTM C 567)
CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS are materials as not exceeding 1840 kg/m3. In this code, a
specified in Section 403 which have cementing lightweight concrete without natural sand is
value when used in concrete either by termed 'all-lightweight- concrete" and
themselves, such as portland cement, blended lightweight concrete in which all fine aggregate
hydraulic cements and expansive cement, or consists of normal-weight sand “sand-
such materials in combination with fly ash, raw lightweight concrete."
or other calcined natural pozzolans, silica fume,
or ground granulated blast-furnace slag. CONTRACTION JOINT is a formed, sawed, or
tooled in a concrete structure to create a
COLUMN is a member with a ratio of height-to- weakened plane regulate the location of
least-lateral dimensions of 3 or greater used cracking resulting from the dimensional change
primarily to support axial compressive load. of different parts of the structure.

COMPOSITE CONCRETE FLEXURAL MEMBERS CURVATURE FRICTION is friction resulting from

are concrete flexural members of pre-cast and bents & curves in the specified prestressing
cast-in-place concrete elements, or both, tendon profile.
constructed in separate place but so
interconnected that all elements respond to DEFORMED REINFORCEMENT is deformed
load as a unit. reinforcing bars, bar and rod mats, deformed
wire, welded smooth wire fabric and welded
COMPRESSION-CONTROLLED SECTION is a deformed wire fabric.
cross section in which the net tensile strain in
the extreme tension at nominal strength is less DEVELOPMENT LENGTH is the length of
than or equal to the compression-controlled embedded reinforcement required to develop
strain limit. the design strength of reinforcement at a
critical section. See Section 409.4.3.
COMPRESSION-CONTROLLED STRAIN LIMIT is
the net tensile strain at balanced strain
conditions. See 410.4.2.
CONCRETE is a mixture of portland cement or EFFECTIVE DEPTH OF SECTION (d) is the
any other hydraulic cement, fine aggregate, distance measured from extreme compression
coarse aggregate and water with or without fiber to centroid of tension reinforcement.
admixtures.
EFFECTIVE PRESTRESS is the stress remaining in
CONCRETE, SPECIFIED COMPRESSIVE pre-stressing tendons after all losses have
STRENGTH OF (f'c), is the compressive strength occurred, excluding effects of dead load and
of concrete in design and evaluated in superimposed load.
accordance with provision of Section 405,
expressed in megapascals (MPa). Wherever the EMBEDMENT LENGTH is the length of
quantity f’c is under a radical sign, square root embedded reinforcement provided beyond a
critical section. least lateral dimension not exceeding of 3.
PLAIN CONCRETE is structural concrete' with no
EXTREME TENSION STEEL is the reinforcement reinforcement or with less reinforcement than
(prestressed or nonprestressed) that is the the minimum amount specified for reinforced
farthest from the extreme compression fiber. concrete.

ISOLATION JOINT is a separation between PLAIN REINFORCEMENT is reinforcement that

adjoining parts of a concrete structure, usually a does not conform to definition of deformed
vertical plane, at the designed location such as reinforcement.
to interfere least with performance of the
structure, yet such as to allow relative POST-TENSIONING is a method of pre-stressing
movement in three directions and avoid in which tendons are tensioned after concrete
formation of cracks elsewhere in the concrete has hardened.
and through which all or part of the bonded
reinforcement is interrupted. PRECAST CONCRETE is a structural concrete
element cast in other than its final position in
JACKING FORCE is the temporary force exerted the structure.
by device that introduces tension into
prestressing tendons in prestressed concrete. PRESTRESSED CONCRETE is structural concrete
in which internal stresses have been introduced
LOAD, DEAD is the dead weight supported by a to reduce potential tensile stresses in concrete
member, as defined by Section 204 (without resulting from loads.
load factors).
PRETENSIONING is a method of pre-stressing in
LOAD, FACTORED is the load, multiplied by which tendons are tensioned before concrete is
appropriate load factors, used to proportion placed.
members by the strength design method of this
chapter. See Sections 408.2.1 and 409.3. REINFORCED CONCRETE is structural concrete
reinforced with no less than the minimum
LOAD, LIVE is the live load specified by Section amounts of prestressing tendons or
205 (without load factors). nonprestressed reinforcement specified in this
chapter.
LOAD, SERVICE is the load specified by Sections
204 to 207 (without load factors).

REINFORCEMENT is material that conforms to

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY is the ratio of normal Section 403.5.1, excluding prestressing tendons
stress to corresponding strain for tensile or unless specifically included.
compressive stresses below proportional limit
of material. See Section 408.6. RESHORES are shores placed snugly under a
concrete slab or other structural member after
NET TENSILE STRAIN is the tensile strain at the original forms and shores have been
nominal strength exclusive of strains due to removed from a larger area, thus requiring the
effective prestress, creep, shrinkage and new slab or structural member to deflect and
temperature. support its weight and existing construction
loads applied prior to installation of the
PEDESTAL is an upright compression member reshores.
with a ratio of unsupported height to average
SHEETING is a material encasing a prestressing member or cross section calculated in
tendon prevent bonding the tendon with the accordance with provisions and assumptions of
surrounding concrete, to provide corrosion the strength design method of this chapter
protection, and to contain the corrosion before application of any strength-reduction
inhibiting coating. factors. See Section 409.4.1.

SHORES are vertical or inclined support STRENGTH, REQUIRED, is the strength of a

members’ design to carry the weight of the member or cross section required to resist
formwork, concrete and construction loads factored loads or related internal moments and
above. forces in such combinations as are stipulated in
this chapter. See Section 409 .2.1.
SPAN LENGTH. See Section 408.8 = Span length
of members not built integrally with support STRESS is the intensity of force per unit area.
shall be considered the clear span plus depth of
member, but need not exceed distance STRUCTURAL CONCRETE is all concrete used for
between centers of supports. structural purposes, including plain and
reinforced concrete.
SPECIAL ANCHORAGE DEVICE is an anchorage
device that satisfies Section 418.20.1 and the TENDON is a steel element such as wire, cable,
standardized acceptance tests of AASHTO bar, rod or strand, or a bundle of such
"Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges", elements, used to impart prestress forces to
Division II, and Section [Link]. concrete.

SPIRAL REINFORCEMENT is continuously wound TENSION-CONTROLLED SECTION is a cross-

reinforcement in the form of a cylindrical helix. section in which the net tensile strain in the
extreme tension steel at nominal strength is
SPLITTING TENSILE STRENGTH ( ) is the tensile greater than or equal to 0.005.
strength of concrete determined in accordance
with ASTM C 496 as described in "Specifications TIE is a loop of reinforcing bar or wire enclosing
for Lightweight Aggregate for Structural longitudinal reinforcement. A continuously
Concrete" (ASTM C 330). See Section 405.2.4. wound bar or wire in the form of a circle,
rectangle, or other polygon shapes without re-
STIRRUP is reinforcement used to resist shear entrant comers is acceptable.
and torsion stresses in a structural member; TRANSFER is the act of transferring stress in
typically bars, wires, or welded wire fabric (plain pre-stressing from jacks or pre-tensioning bed
or deformed) bent into L, U or rectangular to concrete member.
shapes and located perpendicular to or at an
angle to longitudinal reinforcement. (The term UNBONDED TENDON is a tendon that is
"stirrups" is usually applied to lateral permanently prevented from bonding to the
reinforcement in flexural members and the concrete after stressing.
term "ties" to those in compression members.)
See also "tie." WALL is a member, usually vertical, used to
enclose or lie spaces.
STRENGTH, DESIGN, is the nominal strength
multiplied by a strength-reduction factor, ( ). WOBBLE FRICTION in prestressed concrete is
See Section 409.4. the friction caused by unintended deviation of
the prestressing sheath or from its specified
STRENGTH, NOMINAL, is the strength of a profile.
 BUCKLING LOAD The load at which a perfectly
YIELD STRENGTH is the specified minimum yield straight member under compression assumes a
strength or yield point of reinforcement in deflected position.
MegaPascals (MPa). Yield strength or yield point BUILD-UP MEMBER A member made of
shall be determined in tension according to structural metal elements that are welded
applicable ASTM standards as modified by bolted or riveted together.
Section 403.6 of this code.
CHEVRON BRACING A form of bracing where a
pair of braces located either above or below a
5 – STRUCTURAL STEEL beam terminates at a single point within the
clear beam span.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
CLADDING the exterior covering of the
ALLOWABLE STRESSES that stress that are structural components of a building.
prescribed in Section 501 through 514 of this
Chapter. COLD-FORMED MEMBER Structural members
formed from without the application of heat.
APPLICATION FACTOR A multiplier of the value
of moment or deflection in the unbraced length COLUMN A structural member whose primary
of an axially loaded member to reflect the function is to loads parallel to its longitudinal
secondary values generated by the eccentricity axis.
of the applied axial load within the member.
COLUMN CURVE A curve expressing the
ASPECT RATIO In any rectangular relationship between the column strength and
configuration, the ratio of lengths of the sides. slenderness ratio.

BEAM A structural member whose primary COMBINED MECHANISM A mechanism

function is to carry loads transverse to its determined by plastic analysis procedures
longitudinal axis. which combines elementary beam, panel and
joint mechanisms.
BEAM-COLUMN A structural member whose
primary function is to carry loads both COMPACT SECTION Compact sections are
transverse and parallel to its longitudinal axis. capable of developing fully plastic stress
distribution and possess rotation capacity of
BENT A plane framework of beam or truss approximately 3 before the onset of local
member, which support loads, and the column, buckling.
which support these members.
BIAXIAL BENDING Simultaneous bending of a COMPOSITE BEAM A steel beam structurally
member about two perpendicular axes. connected to a concrete slab so that the beam
and slab respond to loads as a unit. See also
BRACED FRAME A frame in which the resistance Concrete-encased beam.
to lateral load or frame instability is primarily
provided by a diagonal, a K-brace or other COLUMN BEAM A steel column fabricated from
auxiliary system of bracing. rolled or build-up steel shapes and encased in
structural concrete or fabricated from steel pipe
BRITTLE FRACTURE Abrupt cleavage with little or tubing and filled with structural concrete.
or no prior ductile deformation.
CONCRETE-ENCASE BEAM A beam totally
encased in concrete cast integrally with the
slab. DUCTILITY FACTORS the ratio of the total
deformation at maximum load to the elastic-
limit deformation.

CONNECTION Combination of joints used to ECCENTRIC BRACED FRAME (EBF) A diagonal

transmit forces between two or more members. braced frame in which at least one end of each
A group of elements that connect the members bracing member connects to a beam a short
to the joint. Categorized by the type and distance from a beam-to-column connection or
amount of force transferred (moment, shear, from another beam-to-brace connection.
end reaction). See also splices.
EFFECTIVE LENGTH The equivalent length KL
CRITICAL LOAD The load at which bifurcation used in compression formulas and determined
occurs as determined by a theoretical stability by a bifurcation analysis.
analysis.
EFFECTIVE LENGTH K The ratio between the
CURVATURE The rotation per unit length due to effective length and the unbraced length of the
bending. member measured between the centers of
gravity of the bracing members.
DESIGN STRENGTH Resistance (force, moment,
and stress, as appropriate) provided by element EFFECTIVE MOMENT OF INERTIA The moment
or connection; the product of the nominal of inertia of the cross section of a member that
strength and the resistance factor. remains elastic when partial plastification of the
cross section takes place, usually under the
DIAGONAL BRACING Inclined structural combination of residual stress and applied
members carrying primarily axial load employed stress. Also, the moment of inertia based on
to enable a structural frame to act as a truss to effective widths of elements that buckle locally.
resist horizontal loads. A form of bracing that Also, the moment of inertia used in the design
diagonally connects joints at different levels. of partially composite members.

DIAPHRAGM Floor slab, metal wall or roof EFFECTIVE STIFFNESS The stiffness of a member
panel possessing a large in-plane shear stiffness computed using the effective moment of inertia
and strength adequate to transmit horizontal of its cross section.
forces to resisting systems.
EFFECTIVE WIDTH The reduced width of a plate
DIAPHRAGM ACTION The in-plane action of a or slab which, with an assumed uniform stress
floor system (also roofs and walls) such that all distribution produces the same effect on the
columns framing into the floor from above and behavior of a structural member as the actual
below are maintained in their same position plate width with its non-uniform stress
relative to each other. distribution.

DOUBLE CURVATURE A bending condition in ELASTIC ANALYSIS Determination of load

which end moments on a member causes the effects (force, stress as appropriate) on
member to assume an S-shape. members and based on the assumption that
material disappears on removal of the force
DRIFT Lateral deflection of a building. that produced it.
DRIFT INDEX The ratio of lateral deflection to
the height of the building.
ELASTIC-PERFECTLY PLASTIC A material which
has an idealized stress strain curve that varies FLAME-CUT PLATE A plate in which the
linearly from the point of and zero-strain and longitudinal edges prepared by oxygen cutting
stress up to the yield point of the material, and from a large plate.
then increases in strain at the value of the a
yield stress without any further increases in FLAT WIDTH for a rectangular tube, the nominal
stress. width minus twice outside comer radius. In
absence of knowledge of the comer radius, the
EMBEDMENT A sled component cast in a flat width may be taken total section width
concrete structure to transmit externally minus three times the thickness.
applied loads to the friction or any combination
thereof. The embedment may be fabricated of FLEXIBLE CONECTION A connection permitting
structural steel plates, shapes, bars, bolts, pipe, a portion but not all, of the simple beam
studs, and concrete reinforcing bars, shear or rotation of a member end.
any combination thereof.
FLOOR SYSTEM The system of structural
ENCASED STEEL STRUCTURE, A steel-framed components separating the stories of a building.
structure in which I individual frame members
are completely encased in-place-concrete. FORCE Resultant of distribution of stress over a
prescribed reaction that develops in a member
EULER FORMULA The mathematical as a result of load (formerly called total stress or
relationship expressing of the Euler load in stress). Generic term signifying axial loads,
terms of the modulus of elasticity moment of bending moment, torque and shears.
inertia of the cross section and length of
column. FRACTURED TOUGHNESS Measurement of the
ability to absorb energy without fracture.
EULER LOAD The critical load of a perfectly Generally determined by impact loading of
straight centrally loaded pin-ended column. specimens containing a notch having a
prescribed geometry.
EYEBAR A particular type of pin-connected
tension member of uniform thickness with FRAME BUCKLING A condition under which
forged or flame cut head of greater than the bifurcation may occur in a frame.
body proportioned to provide approximately
equal strength in the head and body. FRAME INSTABILITY A condition under which a
frame deforms with increasing lateral deflection
FACTORED LOAD The product of the nominal under a system of increasing applied monotonic
load and a load. loads until a maximum value of the load called
the stability limit is reached, after which the
FASTENER Generic term for welds, bolts, rivets frame will continue to deflect without further
or other device. increase in load.

FATIGUE A fracture phenomenon resulting from FULLY COMPOSITE LOAD A composite beam
a fluctuating stress cycle. with sufficient shear connectors to develop the
full flexural strength of the composite section.
FIRST-ORDER ANALYSIS Analysis based on first- GIRDER A horizontal member in a seismic
order deformation in which equilibrium frame. The word beam and girder maybe used
conditions are formulated on the undeformed interchangeably.
structure.
HIGH-CYCLE FATIQUE Failure resulting from or elements and/or to resist lateral loads.
more than 20,000 applications of cycle stress.
LATERAL (or lateral-torsional) BUCKING
HYBRID BEAM A fabricated steel beam Buckling of a member involving lateral
composed of flanges with a greater yield deflection and twist.
strength that that of the web. Whenever the
maximum flange stress is less than or equal to LIMIT STATE A condition in which a structure or
the web yield stress the girder is considered component becomes unfit for service and is
homogeneous. judged either to be no longer useful for its
intended function (serviceability limit state) or
INCLUSION Nonmetallic material entrapped in to be unsafe (strength limit state).
otherwise sound metal.
LIMIT STATES Limits of structural usefulness,
INCOMPLETE FUSION Lack of union by melting such as brittle fracture, plastic collapse,
of filler and base metal over entire prescribed excessive deformation, durability, fatigue,
area. instability and serviceability.

INELASTIC ACTION Material deformation that LINK BEAM The part of a beam in an
does not disappear on removal of the force that eccentrically braced frame, which is designed to
produced it. yield shear and/or bending so that buckling of
the bracing members, is prevented.
INSTABILITY A condition reached in the loading
of an element or structure in which continued LOAD FACTOR, A factor that accounts for
deformation results in decrease of load- unavoidable deviations of the actual load from
resisting capacity. the nominal value and uncertainties in the
analysis that transform the load into a load
JOINT Area where two or more ends, surfaces, effect.
or edges are attached. The entire assemblage at
the intersections of the members. Categorized LOADS Forces or other actions that arise on
by type of fastener or weld used and method of structural system from the weight of all
force transfer. permanent construction, occupants and their
possession, environmental effects, differential
K-BRACING system of struts used in a braced settlement and restrained dimensional changes.
frame in which the pattern of the struts Permanent loads are those loads in which
resembles the letter K, either normal or on its variations in time are rare or of small
side. That form of bracing where a pair of magnitude. All other loads are variable loads.
braces located on one side of a column See Nominal loads.
terminates at a single point within the clear
column height. LFRD (Loads and Resistance Factor Design) A
method of proportioning structural components
LAMELLAR TEARING Separation in highly (a members, connectors, connecting elements
restrained base metal caused by through- and assemblages) such that no applicable limit
thickness strains induced by shrinkage of state is exceeded when the structure is
adjacent weld metal. subjected to all appropriate load combinations.

LATERAL BRACING MEMBER A member utilized LOCAL BUCKLING the buckling of a compression
individually or as a component of a lateral element may precipitate the failure of the
bracing system to prevent buckling of members whole member.
LOW-CYCLE FATIQUE Fracture resulting from a PARTIALLY COMPOSITE BEAM a composite
relatively high range resulting in a relatively beam for which the shear strength of shear
small number has to failure. connectors governs the flexural strength.

LOWER BOUND LOAD A load computed on the PLANE FRAME A structural system assumed for
basis of an assumed equilibrium moment the purpose of analysis and design to be two-
diagram in which the moments are not greater dimensional.
than Mp, that is, less than or at best equal to
the true ultimate load. PLASTIC ANALYSIS Determination of load
effects (force, moment, and stress, as
MECHANISM an articulated system able to appropriate) on members and connections
deform without increase in load used in the based on the assumption of rigid-plastic
special sense that the linkage may include real behavior, i.e., that equilibrium is satisfied
hinges or plastic hinges, or both. throughout the structure yield is not exceeding
anywhere. Second order effects may need to be
MECHANISM METHOD A method of plastic considered.
analysis in which equilibrium between external
forces and internal plastic is calculated on PLASTIC DESIGN SECTION The cross section of a
the basis of an assumed mechanism. The failure member which can maintain a full plastic
load so determined is an upper bound. moment through large rotations so that a
mechanism can develop; the section suitable
NOMINAL LOADS The magnitudes of the loads for plastic design.
specified by the applicable code.
PLASTIC HINGE, a yielded zone, which forms in
NOMINAL STRENGTH The capacity of a a structural member when the plastic moment
structure or component to resist the effects of is attained. The beam is assumed to rotate as if
loads, as determined by computations using hinged, except that it is strained by the plastic
specified material strengths and dimensions moment Mp.
and formulas derived from accepted principle of
structural mechanics, or by field tests or PLASTIC-LIMIT LOAD, The maximum load that is
laboratory tests of scaled models, allowing for attained when a sufficient number of yield
modeling effects and differences between zones has formed to permit the structure to
laboratory and field conditions. deform plasticity without further increase in
load. It is the largest load a structure will
NONCOMPACT SECTION Non-compact sections support, when perfect plasticity is assumed and
can develop yield stress in compression when such factors as instability, second-order
elements before local buckling occurs, but will effects, strain hardening and fracture are
not resist inelastic local buckling at strain levels neglected.
required for a fully plastic stress distribution.
PLASTIC MODULUS, The section modulus of
P-DELTA EFFECT Secondary effect of column resistance, to bending of a completely yielded
axial loads and deflection on the moments in cross-section. It is the combined static moment
members. about the neutral axis of the cross-sectional
areas above and below that axis.
PANELS ZONE the zone in a beam-to-column
connection that transmits moments by a shear PLASTIC MOMENT The resisting moment of a
panel. fully yielded cross-section.
 consequences of failure.
PLASTIC STRAIN the difference between total
strain and elastic strain. RIGID FRAME a structure in which connections
maintain the angular relationship between
PLASTIC ZONE the yielded region of a member. beam and column members under load.

PLASTIFICATION the process of successive ROOT OF THE FLANGE Location on the web of
yielding of fibers in the cross section of a the corner radius termination point or the toe
member as bending moment is increased. of the flange-to-web weld. Measured as the k-
distance from the far side of the flange.
PLATE GIRDER A built-up structural beam.
ROTATION CAPACITY The incremental angular
POST BUCKLING STENGTH the load that can be rotation that a given shape can accept prior to
carried by an element, member or frame after local failure defined as R=(9u/9p)-1. Where 9u
buckling. is the overall rotation attained at the factored
load state and 9p is the idealized rotation
REDISTRIBUTION OF MOMENT A process which corresponding to elastic theory applied to the
results in the successive formation of plastic case of M = Mp.
hinges so that less highly stressed portions of a SECOND ORDER ANALYSIS based on second-
structure may carry increased moments. order deformations, in which equilibrium
conditions are formulated on the deformed
REQUIRED STRENGTH Load effect (force, structure.
moment, stress, as appropriate) acting on an
element or connection determined by structural SERVICE LOAD expected to be supported by the
analysis from the factored loads (using most structure under normal usage; often taken as
appropriate critical load combinations). the nominal load.
SERVICIABILITY LIMIT STATE
RESIDUAL STRESS the stress that remains in an Limiting condition affecting the ability of a
unloaded member after it has been formed into structure to preserve its appearance,
a finished product. (Examples of such stresses maintainability, durability or the comfort of its
include, but are not limited to, those induced by occupants or function of machinery under
cold bending, cooling after rolling, or welding.) normal usage.

RESISTANCE the capacity of a structure or SHAPE FACTOR the ratio of the plastic moment
component to resist the effects of loads. It is to the yield moment, or the ratio of the plastic
determined by computations using specified modulus to the section modulus for a cross-
material strengths, dimensions and formulas section.
derived from accepted principles of structural
mechanics, or by field tests or laboratory tests SHEAR-FRICTION Friction between the
of scaled models, allowing for modeling effects embedment and the concrete that transmits
and differences between laboratory and field shear loads. The relative misplacement in the
conditions. Resistance is a generic term that plane of the shear load is considered to be
includes both strength and serviceability limit resisted by shear-friction anchors located
states. perpendicular to the plane of the shear load.

RESISTANT FACTOR a factor that accounts for SHEAR LUGS Plates, welded studs, bolts and
unavoidable deviations of the actual strength other steel shapes that are embedded in the
from the nominal value and the manner and concrete and located transverse to the direction
of the shear force and that transmit shear loads STEPPED-COLUMN A column with changes from
introduced into the concrete by local bearing at one cross section to another occurring at abrupt
the shear lug-concrete interface. points within the length of the column.

SHEAR WALL A wall that in its own plane resists STIFFENER A member, usually an angle or plate,
shear forces from applied wind, earthquake or attached to a plate or web of a beam or girder
other loads or provides frame stability. Also to distribute load, to transfer shear or to
called structural wall. prevent buckling of the member to which it is
attached.
SIDEWAYS The lateral movement of a structure
under the action of lateral loads, unsymmetrical STIFFNESS The resistance to deformation of a
vertical loads or unsymmetrical properties of member or structure measured by the ratio of
the structure. the applied force to the corresponding
displacement.
SIDEWAYS BUCKLING the buckling mode of a
multistory precipitated by the relative lateral STORY DRIFT the difference in horizontal
displacements of joints, leading to failure by deflection at the top and bottom of a story.
sideways of the frame.
STRAIN HARDENING Phenomenon wherein
ductile steel, after undergoing considerable
SINGLE CURVATURE A deformed shape of a deformation at or just above yield point,
member having one smooth continuous arc, as exhibits the capacity to resist substantially
opposed to double curvature, which contains a higher loading than that which caused initial
reversal. yielding.
STRAIN-HARDENING STRAIN for structural
SLENDER SECTION the cross sections of a steels that have a flat (plastic) region in the
member which will experience local buckling in stress-strain relationship, the value of the strain
the elastic range. at the onset of strain hardening.

SLENDERNESS RATIO the ratio of the effective STRENGTH DESIGN method of proportioning
length of a column to the radius of gyration of structural members using load factors and
the column, both with respect to the same axis resistance factors such that no applicable limit
of bending. state is exceeded (also called load and
resistance factor design).
SLIP-CRITICAL LOAD A bolt joints in which the
slip resistance of the connection is required. STRENGTH LIMIT STRAIGHT limiting conditions
affecting the safety of the structure, in which
SPACE FRAME A three-dimensional structural the ultimate load-carrying capacity is reached.
framework (as contrasted to a plane frame).
STRESS Force per unit area.
SPLICE the connection between two structural STRESS CONCENTRATION Localized stress
elements joined at their ends to form a single, considerably higher than average (even in
longer element. uniformly loaded cross sections of uniform
thickness) due to abrupt changes in geometry
STABILITY-LIMIT LOAD Maximum (theoretical) or localized loading.
loads a structure can support when second-
order instability effects are included. STRONG AXIS The major principal axis of a
cross-section.
 truss.
STRCTURAL DESIGN DOCS. Documents
prepared by the designer (plans, design details TOE OF THE FILLET Termination point of fillet
and job specifications). weld or of rolled section fillet.
TORQUE-TENSION RELATIONSHIP Term applied
STRUCTURAL SYSTEM An assemblage of load- to the wrench torque required producing
carrying components which are joined together specified pre-tension in high-strength bolts.
to provide regular interaction or
interdependence. TURN-OF-NUT METHOD Procedure whereby
the specified pre-tension in high-strength bolts
STUB COLUMN short compression-test is controlled by rotation of the wrench a
specimen, long enough for use in measuring the predetermined 'amount after the nut has been
stress-strain relationship for the complete tightened to a snug fit.
cr06s-section but short enough to avoid
buckling as a column in the elastic and plastic UNBRACED FRAME a frame in which the
ranges. resistance to lateral load is provided by the
bending resistance of frame members and their
SUBASSEMBLAGE a truncated portion of a connections.
structural frame.
SUPPORTED COLUMN a frame which depends UNBRACED LENGTH distance between braced
upon adjacent braced or unbraced frames for points of a member, measured between the
resistance to lateral load or frame instability. centers of gravity of the bracing members.
(This transfer of load is frequently provided by UNDERCUT a notch resulting from the melting
the floor or roof system through diaphragm and removal of base metal at the edge of a
action or by horizontal cross bracing in the weld.
roof).
UNIVERSAL-MILL PLATE a plate in which the
TANGENT MODULUS at any given stress level, longitudinal edges has been formed by a rolling
the slope of the stress-strain curve of a material process during manufacture. Often
in the inelastic range as determined by the abbreviated as UM plate.
compression test of a small specimen under
controlled conditions. UPPER BOUND LOAD a load computed on the
basis of an assumed mechanism which will
TEMPORARY STRUCTURE a general term for always be at best equal to or greater than the
anything that is built or constructed (usually to true ultimate load.
carry construction loads) that will eventually be
removed before or after completion of V-BRACING that form of chevron bracing that
construction and does not become part of the intersects a beam from above and inverted V-
permanent structural system. bracing is that form of chevron bracing that
intersects a beam from below.
TENSILE STRENGTH the maximum tensile stress
that a material is capable of sustaining. VERTICAL BRACING SYSTEM a system of shear
walls, braced frames or both, extending
TENSION FIELD ACTION the behavior of a plate throughout one or more floors of a building.
girder panel under shear force in which
diagonal tensile stresses develop in the web and WARPING TORSION that portions of the total
compressive forces develop in the transverse resistance to torsion that is provided by
stiffeners in a manner analogous to a Pratt resistance to warping of the cross section.
 determined in a tension test when the strain
WEAK AXIS the minor principal axis of a cross- reach,es 0.005 mm per mm.
section.
6 - WOOD
WEATHERING STEEL A type of high-strength,
low-alloy steel which can be used in normal SECTION 602 - DEFINITION
environments (not marine) and outdoor
exposures without protective paint covering. The following terms used in this chapter shall
This steel develops tight adherent rust at a have the meanings indicated in this section:
decreasing rate with respect to time.
BLOCKED DIAPHRAGM is a diaphragm in which
WEB BUCKLING the buckling of a web plate. all sheathing edges not occurring on framing
members are supported on and connected to
WEB CRIPPLING the local failure of a web plate blocking.
in the immediate vicinity of a concentrated load
or reaction. CONVENTIONAL LIGHT-FRAME CONSTRUCTION
WORKING LOAD also called service load. The is a type of construction whose primary
actual load assumed to be acting on the structural elements are formed by a system of
structure. repetitive wood-framing members.

X-BRACING that form of bracing where a pair of DIAPHRAGM is a horizontal or nearly horizontal
diagonal braces cross near mid-length of the system acting to transmit lateral forces to the
bracing members. vertical resisting elements. When the term
"diaphragm” is used, it includes horizontal
YIELD MOMENT in a member subjected to bracing systems.
bending, the moment at which an outer fiber FIBERBOARD is a fibrous-felted, homogeneous
first attains the yield stress. panel made from lignocellulosic fibers (usually
wood or crane) having a density of less than 497
YIELD PLATEAU the portion of the stress-strain kg/m3 but more than 160 kg/m3.
curve for uniaxial tension or compression in
which the stress remains essentially constant
during a period of substantially increased strain. GLUED BUILT-UP MEMBERS are structural
elements, the sections of which are composed
YIELD POINT the first stress in a material at of built-up lumber, wood structural panels or
which an increase in strain occurs without an wood structural panels in combination with
increase in stress, the yield point less than the lumber, all parts bonded together with
maximum attainable stress. adhesive.

YIELD STRENGTH the stress at which a material GRADE (Lumber), the classification of lumber in
exhibits a specified limiting deviation from the regard to strength and utility in accordance with
proportionality of stress to strain. Deviation the grading rules of an approved lumber
expressed in terms of strain. grading agency.
HARDBOARD is a fibrous-felted, homogeneous
YIELD STRESS Yield point, yield strength or panel made from lignocellulosic fibers
yield-stress level as defined. consolidated under heat and pressure in a hot
press to a density not less than 497 kg/m3.
YIELD STRESS LEVEL the average stress during
yielding in the plastic range, the stress NOMINAL SIZE (Lumber), the commercial size
designation of width' and depth, in standard Termite resistant: Narra, Kamagong.
sawn lumber grades; somewhat larger than the
standard net size of dressed lumber. In WOOD STRUCTURAL PANEL is a structural
accordance to Philippine National Standards panel product composed primarily of wood and
(PNS). in meeting the requirements of Philippine
NORMAL LOADING, a design load that stressed National Standards (PNS).
a member or fastening to the full allowable Wood structural panels include all-veneer
stress tabulated in this chapter. This loading plywood, composite panels containing a
may be applied for approximately 10 years, combination of veneer and wood-base material,
either continuously or cumulatively, and 90 and mat-formed panel such as oriented
percent of this load may be applied for the stranded board and wafer board.
remainder of the life of the member or
fastening. 7-MASONRY

PARTICLEBOARD is a manufactured panel The materials, design, construction and quality

product lifting of particles of wood or assurance of masonry shall be in accordance
combinations of wood fibers and wood fibers with this chapter.
bonded together with synthetic or other
suitable bonding system by as bonding process, DESIGN METHODS
in accordance with approved nationally
recognized standard. Masonry shall comply with the provisions of
one of the following design methods in this
PLYWOOD is a panel of laminated veneers chapter as well as the requirements of Sections
conforming to Philippine National standards 701 through 705.
(PNS) "Construction and Industrial Plywood"
and UBC Standard 23-3, "Performance for  Working Stress Design. Masonry designed
Wood-based Structural-Use Panels". by the working stress design method shall
comply with the provisions of Sections 706
ROTATION is the torsional movement of a and 707.
diaphragm about a vertical axis.
 Strength Design. Masonry designed by the
SUBDIAPHRAGM is a portion of a larger wood strength design method shall comply with
diaphragm designed to anchor and transfer the provisions of Sections 706 and 708.
local forces to primary diaphragm struts and the
main diaphragm.  Empirical Design. Masonry designed by the
empirical design method shall comply with
TREATED WOOD is wood treated with an the provisions Sections 706.1 and 709.
approved preservative under treating and
quality control procedures.  Glass Masonry. Glass masonry shall comply
with the Provisions of Section 710.
WOOD OF NATURAL RESISTANCE TO DECAY OR
TERMITES is the heartwood of the species set DEFINITIONS
forth, corner sapwood is permitted on 5
percent of the pieces provided 90 percent or For the purpose of this chapter, certain terms
more of the width of each on which it occurs is are defined as lows:
heartwood. Recognized species are: AREAS:

Decay resistant: Narra, Kamagong, Dao, Tangile. BEDDED AREA is the area of the surface of
masonry, which is in contact with mortar in structural member whose horizontal dimension
plane of the joint. measured at right angles to the thickness does
not exceed three times the thickness.
EFFECTIVE AREA OF REINFORCEMENT is the
cross-sectional area of reinforcement multiplied DIMENSIONS:
by the cosine of the angle between the
reinforcement and the direction for which ACTUAL DIMENSIONS are the measured
effective area is to be determined. dimensions of a designated item. The actual
dimension shall not vary from the specified
GROSS AREA is the total cross-sectional area of dimension by more than amount allowed in the
a lined section. appropriate standard of quality in Section 702.
NET AREA is the gross cross-sectional area
minus the area-ungrouted cores, notches, cells NOMINAL DIMENSIONS of masonry units are
and unbedded areas. Net area is the actual equal to its specified dimensions plus the
surface area of cross section of masonry. thickness of the joint with which the unit is laid.

TRANSFORMED AREA is the equivalent area of SPECIFIED DIMENSIONS are the dimensions
one material to a second based on the ratio of specified for the manufacture or construction of
moduli of elasticity of the first material to the masonry, masonry units, joints or any other
second. component of a structure.

BOND: GROUT LIFT is an increment of grout height

within the total grout pour.
ADHESION BOND is the adhesion between
masonry units and mortar or grout. GROUT POUR is the total height of masonry
wall to be grouted prior to the erection of
REINFORCING BOND is the adhesion between additional masonry. A grout pour will consist of
steel reinforcement and mortar or grout. one or more grout lifts.

BOND BEAM is a horizontal grouted element GROUTED HOLLOW-UNIT MASONRY is that

within masonry in which reinforcement is form of grouted masonry construction in which
embedded. certain designated cells of hollow units are
continuously filled with grout.
CELL is a void space having a gross cross-
sectional area greater than 967 mm2. GROUTED MULTIWYTHE MASONRY is that
form of grouted masonry construction in which
CLEANOUT is an opening to the bottom of a the space between the wythes is solidly or
grout space of sufficient size and spacing to periodically filled with grout.
allow the removal of debris.
JOINTS:
COLLAR JOINT is the mortared or grouted space
between wythes of masonry. BED JOINT is the mortar joint that is horizontal
at the time masonry units is placed.
COLUMN, REINFORCED, is a vertical structural HEAD JOINT is the mortar joint having a vertical
member in which both the reinforcement and transverse plane.
masonry resist compression.
MASONRY UNIT is brick, tile, stone, glass block
COLUMN, UNREINFORCED, is a vertical or concrete block conforming to the
requirements specified in Section 702.

HOLLOW-MASONRY UNIT is a masonry unit

whose net cross-sectional areas (solid area) in
any plane parallel to the surface containing
cores, cells or deep frogs is less than 75 percent
of its gross cross-sectional area measured in the
same plane.

SOLID-MASONRY UNIT is a masonry unit whose

net cross-sectional area in any plane parallel to
the surface containing the cores or cells at least
75 percent of the gross cross-sectional area
measured in the same plane.

PRISM is an assemblage of masonry units and

mortar with or without grout used as a test
specimen for determining property masonry.

REINFORCED MASONRY is that form of

masonry construction in which reinforcement
acting in conjunction with masonry is used to
resist forces.

SHELL is the outer portion of a hollow masonry

unit as placed in masonry.

WALLS:

BONDED WALL is a masonry wall in which two

or more wythes are bonded to act as a
structural unit.

CAVITY WALL is a wall containing continuous air

space with a minimum width of 51 mm and a
maximum width of 114 mm between wythes
which are tied with metal ties.

WALL TIE is a mechanical metal fastener which

connects wythes of masonry to each other or to
other materials.
I WEB
is an interior solid portion of a hollow-masonry
unit as placed in masonry.

WYTHE is the portion of a wall, which is one

masonry unit in thickness. A collar joint is not
considered a wythe.
 Areas and centroids

(Bending Moment Diagrams)

[Link]
[Link]

From HIBBELER:

General formula : for nth degree curve shapes:

𝑛 𝑏(𝑛+1)
Area, A= 𝑏𝑀( 𝑛+1), Centroid, x̅= 2 (𝑛+2)
where:
A = area of the curve

b = width (see the illustrations)

M = height

x̅ = centroid from the illustrated reference point

n = number of degree of the curve

Structural Theory 2

Lecture Notes 1
in
STRUCTURAL
THEORY 2
CE 06
Second Semester
2022-2023
BSCE Curriculum 2018-2019

Presented by: NENITA M. ABARADO, Ph.D., C.E.

College of Engineering and Architecture
Bohol Island State University-Main Campus

1
Structural Theory 2

Lesson 1
Approximate Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. identify the suitable assumptions for reducing the given indeterminate structure to a
determinate structure;
2. analyze the stresses of indeterminate structures using approximate method;
3. calculate the reactions and stresses of building frames subjected to vertical loads by
using an approximate method and
4. draw the shear and moment diagrams of portal frames and trusses, and building
frames that are subjected to lateral loads by the portal and cantilever methods.

Time Frame: 18 hours

Introduction

Normally the exact member dimensions are not specified, based on preliminary design
and analysis. A preliminary design of the members of a structure can be established by
performing an approximate analysis, and when this is complete, the more precise
indeterminate analysis can then be performed, and the design can be refined.

Approximate analysis provides insight into the performance of the structure under load
and is helpful when verifying a more accurate analysis or when time, resources, or capacity is
not sufficient for doing a more exact analysis.

1.1 Indeterminate Trusses

A common type of truss mostly used for lateral bracing for the top and bottom chords
of a bridge is shown in fig. a

This truss is not considered a primary element for supporting the structure if used for
this purpose, and as a consequence it is often analyzed by approximate methods.

2
Structural Theory 2

 Assumptions:

Case 1: If the diagonal elements are designed to be constructed from large rolled sections
such as angles or channels, they may withstand tensile and compressive force equally. Then
assume that the tension and compression diagonals each carry half the panel shear.

Case 2: If the diagonals are purposely designed to be long and slender, it is reasonable to
assume that a compressive force cannot be supported; otherwise they can easily buckle. Thus
the panel shear is completely resisted by the diagonal tension, while the compressive diagonal
is assumed to be a zero force member.

 Steps in Solving For The Approximate Forces Of The Members Of A Truss:

1. Check the stability and determinacy of the truss.

2. Determine the reactions at the supports.
3. Cut the truss in each panel section and indicate the slopes in each diagonal member.
4. Determine the forces on the diagonal members by considering the intentions of the
construction design. Use the appropriate assumptions on the analysis.
5. Analyze its members by the method of joints and sections.
6. The direction of the diagonals will depend on the panel shear.
7. Use the method of joints and sections simultaneously to determine the force on
members of the truss. .

Examples:

Case 1
1. Determine (approximately) the forces in the members of the truss shown in Fig. 1 below.
The diagonals are to be designed to support both tensile and compressive forces, and
therefore each is assumed to carry half the panel shear. The support reactions have
been computed.

Fig. 1

Solution:

FB=AE
∑fy = 0 ↑+
3
20 − 10 − F ( ) (2) = 0
5
F = 8.33 KN = FFB = FAE

3
Structural Theory 2

∑MA = 0+↷ ∑MF = 0+↷

4 4
FFB ( ) (3) + FFE (3) = 0 FAE ( ) (3) + FAB (3) = 0
5 5

FFE = 6.664 KN (c) FAB = 6.664 KN (T)

DB=CE

∑Fy = 0 ↑+
3
10 + FCE ( ) (2) = 0
5

FCE = 8.33 KN(T)

∑MC = 0+↷ ∑MD = 0+↷

4 4
−FDB ( ) (3) + FDE (3) = 0 −FCE ( ) (3) + FCB (3) = 0
5 5

FDE = 6.67 KN (c) FCB = 6.67 KN (T)

∑Fy = 0+↑
3
AF − 10 − FAE ( ) = 0
5

AF = 15 KN (T)

∑Fy = 0+↑
3 3
−ED + AE ( ) + FCE ( ) = 0
5 5

DE = 150KN (T)

∑Fy = 0+↑
3
DC + FDB ( ) = 0 , DC = 5 KN (C)
5

4
Structural Theory 2

Case 2

Determine (approximately) the forces in the members of this truss. Assume the diagonals are
slender and therefore will not support a compressive force. The loads and support reactions
are shown in Fig. 2

Fig.2

𝐴𝐼 = 0

∑𝐹𝑦 = 0+↑
15
−2 + 8 − 𝐹𝐽𝐵 ( ) =0
15√2

𝐹𝐽𝐵 = 8.49 𝐾 (𝑇)

∑𝑀𝐴 = 0+↷ ∑𝑀𝐽 = 0+↷

15 15
−𝐹𝐽𝐵 ( ) (15) − 𝐹𝐽𝐼 (15) = 0 −𝐹𝐴𝐼 ( ) (15) + 𝐹𝐴𝐵 (15) = 0
15√2 15√2

𝐹𝐽𝐼 = 6 𝐾 (𝑐) 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 0

∑𝐹𝑦 = 0+↑

𝐽𝐴 + 8 = 0

𝐹𝐽𝐴 = 8 𝐾𝑁 (𝐶)

𝐵𝐻 = 0

∑𝐹𝑦 = 0+↑
15
−4 − 2 + 8 − 𝐹𝐼𝐶 ( )=0
15√2

5
Structural Theory 2

𝐹𝐼𝐶 = 2.83 𝐾 (𝑇)

∑𝑀𝐵 = 0+↷ ∑𝑀𝐽 = 0+↷

15
𝐹𝐼𝐶 ( ) (15) − 𝐹𝐼𝐻 (15) − 2(15) + 8(15) = 0 −𝐹𝐵𝐶 (15) + 8(15) − 2(15) = 0
15√2

𝐹𝐼𝐻 = 8 𝐾𝑁 (𝑐) 𝐹𝐵𝐶 = 6 𝐾 (𝑇)

∑𝑓𝑦 = 0+↑
15
𝐹𝐵𝐼 + 𝐹𝐵𝐽 ( ) =0
15√2

𝐹𝐵𝐼 = 6 𝐾 (𝐶)

∑𝑓𝑦 = 0+↑

212.83 sin 45°2 -FCH = 0

𝐹𝐶𝐻 = 4 𝐾 (𝐶)

1.2- Vertical Loads on Building Frames

Building frames are the most common type of structure an engineer may encounter in
practice. It mainly consist of girders that are rigidly attached to the columns so that the whole
structure could withstand the effects of lateral forces due to wind and earthquake.

 Assumptions of Analysis of Building Frame to Vertical Loads

 There is zero moment in the girder,

0.1L from the left support.
 There is zero moment in the girder,
0.1L from the right support.
 The girder does not support an axial
force. The girder axial forces is zero.

Fig. 3

6
Structural Theory 2

Consider a simply supported beam. In this case zero moment (or point of inflection)
occurs at the supports as shown.

Next consider a fixed beam, subjected to vertical load as shown. In this case, the point
of inflection or point of zero moment occurs at 0.21L from each end of the support.

7
Structural Theory 2

Examples:

3. Draw the shear & moment diagram of the endpoints E and F and endpoints C & D.
Assuming the endpoints to be identical and fixed supported. And determine
(approximately) the support reactions at A.

Solution:

∑ME =0↻ +

ME = 27 [Link] ↺

VE = 3 + 12

VE = 15k ↑

8
Structural Theory 2

ME = 3 K (1ft) + 12 K(2ft)

MC = 27 [Link] ↺

VE = 3 K + 12 K

VC = 15k ↑

MA = ME + Mc

MA = 27 [Link] + 27 [Link]

MA = [Link] ↺

A Y = V E + Vc

AY = 15 K + 15 K

AY = 30 ft ↑

Ax = 0

4. Determine (approximately) the support reactions at A. And draw the shear and moment
diagram of endpoints G and I.

Solution:

MG = 6 (0.3) + 24 (0.6)

MG = 16.2 kN.m ↺

VG = 6 kN + 24 kN

VG = 30 kN ↑

9
MG = MD

MD= 16.2 kN.m ↺

VG = VD

VD = 30 kN ↑

ME = 3 k (1) + 12 (2)

ME = 27 [Link] ↺

VE = 3 + 12

VE = 15k ↑

5. Determine (approximately) the internal moment at joint A. Draw the moment diagram
for girder ABCD.

Solution:

10
 MA = 4.5 (0.3) + 18 (0.6)

MA= 12.15 kN

VA = 4.5 + 18

VA = 22.5 kN

Exercises:

Plate 1:

Approximate Analysis of Indeterminate Structures (Trusses)

Determine (approximately) the force in each member of the truss for the given trusses as shown
in figures P-1- to P-4.

a. (P1-4) Assume the diagonals cannot support either a tensile or a compressive force.
b. (P5-8) Both diagonals will be assumed to carry half the panel shear.

Fig. P-1 Fig. P-2

11
 Fig. P-4
Fig. P-3

B. Vertical Loads on Building Frames

P1-9. Determine (approximately) the internal moment at A caused by the

vertical loading.

P1-10. Draw the approximate shear and moment diagrams for the girders
of the frame.

12
Due date: _________

References:

Books:

 ASEP, NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES, 2015 ed.

 Aslam Kassimali, STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS, 4th ed.
 Matias Areola, STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
 R.C Hibbeler, STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS, 8TH ed.

YouTube links:

 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]

13
Structural Theory 2

Lecture Notes 3
in
STRUCTURAL
THEORY 2
CE 06
Second semester
2022-2023
BSCE Curriculum 2018

Presented by: NENITA M. ABARADO

College of Engineering and Architecture
Bohol Island State University-Main Campus

1
Structural Theory 2

Lesson 3
Approximate Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures
Lateral Loads on Building Frames

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. identify the assumptions to be used in the analysis of building frames subjected to

lateral forces;
2. calculate the reactions of a building frame subjected to lateral loads using portal
method and cantilever methods and
3. draw the shear and moment diagrams of the building frames.

Time Frame: 5 hours

Introduction

The behavior of rectangular building frames is different under lateral loads and under
vertical loads, so different assumptions for lateral loads must be used in the approximate
analysis than in the case of vertical loads.

Two methods are widely used for approximate analysis of rectangular frames subject
to lateral loads. The portal method and cantilever method.

Approximate Analysis of Building Frames subjected to lateral loads using

 Portal Method

The portal method was initially developed by A. Smith in 1915 and is generally
considered to be appropriate for the approximate analysis of relatively low building frames.

In summary, the portal method for analyzing fixed-supported building frames requires
the following assumptions:

 A hinge is placed at the center of each girder, since this is assumed to be a point
of zero moment.

 A hinge is placed at the center of each column, since this is assumed to be a point
of zero moment.

 At a given floor level the shear at the interior column hinges is twice that at the
exterior column hinges, since the frame is considered to be a superposition of
portals.

2
Structural Theory 2

Examples

3. Solve the indeterminate frame shown using the portal method.

5.0 m 5.0 m
G H I
100 kN

4.0 m

D E F
50 kN

4.0 m

A B C

Solution:
TOP STOREY LEVEL
i j
100 kN

f g h
HA 2HA HA

? ? ?

From the figure (based on the assumptions)

100=4H
H=25 kN

LOWER STOREY LEVEL

i j
100 kN

f g h

d e
50 kN

a b c
HB 2HB HB

? ? ?

100+50=4H
150=4H
H=37.5 kN

at Joint G: ∑Mi=0 ⤾ ∑FX=0 →

2.5m
i
(100 -25- iX)= 0
100 kN 25(2)- fy (2.5)= 0
G iX= 75 kN →
2.0m fy= 20 kN ↑
f
25 kN

3
Structural Theory 2

∑FY=0 ↑
20 - fy= 0
fy= 20 kN ↑

at Joint D:
∑Md=0 ⤾
f
20(2.5)+25(2)+37.5(2)-ay= 0
2.0m
D
2.5m
d
ay= 70 kN ↑
50 KN
2.0m
∑FX=0 →
a
37.5 kN ∑FY=0 ↑
50+25-37.5-dX= 0
20-70+dy= 0
dX= 37.5 kN →
dy= 50 kN ↑

at Joint H:
2.5m 2.5m j
i
H
2.0m ∑Me=0 ⤾ ∑FY=0 ↑
g
50 kN
50(2)-50(5)+50(2)- by(2.5)=0 50-0+0+ ey=0
by=0 ey=50 kN ↑
at Joint E:

g
∑Me=0 ⤾
2.0m
d 2.5m E 2.5m e 50(2)-50(5)+50(2)- by(2.5)=0
2.0m by=0
b
75 kN

∑FY=0 ↑
at Joint I:
50-0+0+ ey=0
2.4m
j I
ey=50 kN ↑
2.0m

h 25 kN
∑FY=0 ↑
-20+hy=0
at Joint F:
hy=20 kN ↑
h

2.0m
2.5m
∑FY=0 ↑
e F

2.0m -20-50+cy=0
c 37.5 kN
cy=70 kN ↑

4
Structural Theory 2

Below are the shear and moment diagrams for the portal method.

4. Determine (approximately) the reactions at supports A, B, C, and D. All columns have

the same cross-sectional area.

9 kN

4.0m

12 kN

4.0m

5.0m 5.0m 5.0m

Solution:

TOP STOREY LEVEL

2.5m 2.5m 2.5m 2.5m 2.5m 2.5m
9 kN
I J K L
2.0m

1.5 kN 3 kN 3 kN 1.5 kN

By Assumption:

6H=9
H=1.5 kN

5
Structural Theory 2

LOWER STOREY LEVEL

I J K L
9 kN

4.0m

E F G H
12 kN
2.0m

3.5 kN 7 kN 7 kN 3.5 kN

By Assumption:

6H=21
H=3.5 kN
at Joint I:
2.5 m
l ∑Ml=0 ⤾ ∑FX=0 →
9 kN
I
1.5(2)-hy(2.5)=0 9-1.5-lx=0
2.0 m
hy=1.2 kN ↓ lx=7.5 kN ←
h
1.5 kN
∑Fy=0 ↑
ly-1.2=0
at Joint E: ly=1.2 kN ↑

2.0 m 2.5 m ∑Me=0 ⤾ ∑FX=0 →

E e
12 kN 1.2(2.5)+1.5(2)+3.5(2)-ay(2.5)=0 12+1.5-3.5-ex=0
2.0 m ay=5.2 kN ↓ ex=10 kN ←
a
3.5 kN
∑Fy=0 ↑
ey+1.2-5.2=0
at Joint J: ey=4 kN ↑
2.5 m 2.5 m m
l
J
2.0 m
∑Mm=0 ⤾ ∑FX=0 → ∑Fy=0 ↑
i
3 kN -1.2(5)+3(2)-iy(2.5)=0 7.5-3-mx=0 my-1.2=0
iy=0 kN mx=4.5 kN ← my=1.2 kN ↑

6
Structural Theory 2

at Joint F: ∑Mf=0 ⤾ ∑Fy=0 ↑

i -4(5)+3(2)-by(2.5)=0 fy-4-(-5.6)=0
2.0 m by=-5.6 kN≈5.6 kN ↑ fy=-1.6 kN≈1.6 kN ↓
e 2.5 m F 2.5 m f

2.0 m
b
7 kN
∑FX=0 →
3+10-7-fx=0
fx=6 kN ←

∑Mn=0 ⤾ ∑FX=0 →
at Joint K:
-1.2(5)+3(2)-jy(2.5)=0 4.5-3-nx=0
m
2.5 m 2.5 m n
K jy=0 kN nx=1.5 kN ←
2.0 m
j
3 kN
∑Fy=0 ↑
ny-1.2=0
ny=1.2 kN ↑

at Joint G: ∑Mg=0 ⤾
j
-1.6(5)+3(2)-cy(2.5)=0
2.0 m cy=-0.8 kN≈0.8 kN ↑
f 2.5 m G 2.5 m g

2.0 m
∑Fy=0 ↑ ∑FX=0 →
c
7 kN
gy-(-1.6)-(-0.8)=0 3+6-7-gx=0
gy=-2.4 kN≈2.4 kN ↓ gx=2 kN ←

at Joint H:

k
∑Fy=0 ↑
2.0 m
g 2.5 m H dy-1.2-(-2.4)=0
dy=3.6 kN ↓
2.0 m
d
3.5 kN

7
Structural Theory 2

∑Fy=0 ↑
at Joint L: ky-1.2=0
n 2.5 m ky=1.2 kN ↑
L
2.0 m

k 1.5 kN

 Cantilever Method

The Cantilever Method is based on the same action as a long cantilever beam
subjected to a traverse load. It is appropriate if a frame is tall and slender, or has columns with
different cross-sectional areas.

 Step – by – step Procedure in Solving Cantilever Method

1. Draw a sketch of the frame obtained by placing a hinge at the center or midpoint of each
member or girder of the given frame. Assuming a point of zero moment.

PA
C D

P
B B E

F
A

2. Determine column axial forces. For each story of the frame:

a) Pass a horizontal section through the internal hinges at the column mid height,
cutting the frame into two portions.

b) Draw a Free Body Diagram of the frame.

c) Determine the location of the centroid of all the columns.

d) Assuming that the axial forces in the columns are proportional to their distances
from the centroid, determine the column axial forces by applying the moment
equilibrium equation.

8
Structural Theory 2

A1 A2
3. Draw a Free Body Diagram of all the members and joints of the frame.

4. Determine the girder shears and moment.

5. Determine the column shears and moment.

6. Determine girder axial forces.

7. Use the three equilibrium equations of the entire frame.

These three assumptions reduce the frame to one that is both stable and statically
determinate.

Equation of Equilibrium: Equation of Centroid

⃗⃗
∑𝐅𝐱 = 𝟎 +
Distance from reference
∑𝐅𝐲 = 𝟎 ↑ + x̅ = ∑Area of each column
∑M = 0 ↻ +
∑A (x)
x̅ = ∑A

9
Structural Theory 2

PA

Column A1 A2 A3
Area
V3= A3y3
V1= A1y1 V2= A2y2
PB 𝑦1𝑥2
2
y3= 𝑥1

𝑦1𝑥2
y2= 𝑥1

y1
x1
Neutral Axis (Centroid of Column Area)
X2

X3
Examples:

5. Using the Cantilever Method, find the reactions at the base of column A. All the columns
have the same cross-sectional area.

A(0) + A(23) + A(48)

̅=
X
3A
71
̅=
X
3
̅
X = 23.67 ft.
Level 2

10
Structural Theory 2

∑MO = 0 ↻ , +3(10) - FO (23.67) - 24.33

Fq = F
FP(0.67) - Fq(24.33) = 0 0.67 P
Fq = 36.31 FP

FO FP Fq
= = ∑MO′ = 0 ↻ +
23.67 0.67 24.33
3(10) – 35.33 FP (23.67) - FP (0.67)
– 36.31 FP (24.33) = 0
23.67
FO = F
0.67 P FP= 0.02 k
FO = 35.33 FP FO = 0.71 k
Fq= 0.72 k

Level 1

∑MO = 0 ↻ , + 3(30) + 4 (10) -Fj(23.67) - Fk(0.67) - Fl(24.33) = 0

11
Structural Theory 2

Fj Fk Fl
= =
23.67 0.67 24.33
23.67
Fj = F
0.67 k
Fj = 35.33 Fk

24.33
Fl = F
0.67 k
Fl = 36.31 Fk =

∑MO′ = 0 ↻ + 3(30) +4(10) – 35.33 Fk (23.67) - Fk (0.67) – 36.31 Fk (24.33) = 0

FP= 0.08 k
FP= 2.83 k
FP= 2.90 k

∑Mr=0 ⤾
ox = 0.71 (11.5) / 10
ox = 0. 81 k

∑Mm=0 ⤾
jx = 2.81 (11.5) / 10
jx = 3.23 k

∑MA=0 ⤾
MA = 3.23 (10)
MA = 32.3 [Link].

∑FX=0 → ∑Fy=0 ↑
Ax = 3.23 k → Ay = 2.83 k ↑

6. Determine approximately the reactions at the base of the columns of the frame shown.
The columns have cross-sectionals areas given. Use Cantilever Method of Analysis.

12
Structural Theory 2

I J K L
8k

12 ft

10 k E F G H

16 ft
10 in2 8 in2 6 in2 10 in2

A B C D

20 ft 15 ft 25 ft

Solution:

y2 y3
y1 8.53 ft. 6.47 ft y4
28.53 ft. 31.47 ft.

∑(Ai)(xi) 0(10)+20( 8)+35(6)+60(10)

ẋ= = =28.53 ft.
∑Ai 10+8+6+10

TOP STOREY LEVEL

? ? ? ?
My=0.239 Ly Ny=0.136 Ly
Ly 8.53 ft. 6.47
' ft. Oy=1.103 Ly
28.53 ft. 31.47 ft.

By ratio and proportion:

8.53 ft
y2 = y1 M = 0.239L = 0.173 kN
28.53 ft y y
6.47 ft
y3 = y1 N = 0.136L = 0.099 kN
28.53 ft y y
31.47 ft
y4 = y1 O = 1.103Ly = 0.800 kN
28.53 ft y
13
Structural Theory 2

∑Mh=0 ⤾
8(6)-Ly(28.53)-(0.239Ly)(8.53)-(0.136Ly)(6.47)-(1.103Ly)(31.47)=0
Ly = 0.725 k

LOWER STOREY LEVEL

8k

10 k

? ? ? ?

Ey=3.627 k Fy=0.868 k Gy=0.494 k Hy=4.001 k

8.53 ft 6.47 ft
28.53 ft 31.47 ft

at Joint I:
10 ft
l
8k
I
6 ft
∑Ml=0 ⤾ ∑FX=0 → ∑Fy=0 ↑
h -0.75(10)+hx(6)=0 8-1.25-lx=0 ly-0.725=0
hx= 1.25 k← lx=6.75 kN ← ly=0.725 kN ↑
0.725 k

at Joint E:

h ∑Me=0 ⤾ ∑FX=0 →
6 ft
0.725(10)+1.25(6)- 1.25+10-2.69-ex=0
10 ft
3.627(10)+ax(8)=0
10 k
E e
ex=8.56 k ←
ax=2.69 k ←
8 ft
a

∑Fy=0 ↑
3.627 k ey+0.725-3.627=0
ey=5.658 k ↑

14
Structural Theory 2

at Joint J:
10 ft 10 ft
l m
∑Mm=0 ⤾ ∑FX=0 →
J
-0.725(20)- 6.75-2.71-mx=0
6 ft
0.174(10)+ix(6)=0 mx=4.04 k ←
i
ix=2.71 k ←

∑Fy=0 ↑
my-0.725-0.174=0
my=0.899 k ↑

at Joint F:
∑Mf=0 ⤾
i ∑FX=0 →
0.174(10)+2.71(6)-8.56(20)-
0.868(10)+bx(8)=0 2.71+8.56-0.868-fx=0
6 ft
10 ft 10 ft
e F f
bx=20.24 k ← fx=10.402 k ←

8 ft

b ∑Fy=0 ↑
fy+0.174-5.7-0.868=0
0.868 k fy= 6.742 k ↓

at Joint K: ∑FX=0 →
m
10 ft 10 ft n 4.04-3.16-nx=0
K ∑Mn=0 ⤾ nx=0.88 k ←
6 ft -0.899(20)-0.0967(10)+jx(6)=0
∑Fy=0 ↑
j jx=3.16 k ←
ny-0.899-0.0967=0
ny=0.9957 kN ↑
0.0967 k
at Joint G:
∑Mg=0 ⤾ ∑FX=0 →
j -.494(10)+3.16(6)+0.097(10)- 3.16+10.402-14.98-gx=0
6.742(20)+cx(8)=0 gx=-1.418 k ≈1.418 k →
6 ft
f
10 ft
G 10 ft g cx=14.98 k←

8 ft
c

0.494 k

15
Structural Theory 2

∑Fy=0 ↑

at Joint L: gy+0.097-6.742-0.494=0
gy=7.139 k ↑
n 10 ft
L
6 ft

0.8 k

at Joint H:

k ∑Fx=0 →
6 ft -kx+0.88=0
10 ft
g H kx= 0.88 k ←

8 ft
d

0.4 k

Exercises
Plate 2: (Use the Portal Method)

1. What is the bending moment on member AD in kiloNewton-meter?

Make your own dimensions.

16
Structural Theory 2

2. From the given frame, it is subjected to a lateral load of 80 kN acting at joint D. Assume all
columns have equal cross-sectional area. Using Cantilever Method.

a) Compute the axial load of column AD.

b) Compute the moment at the base of column BE.
c) Compute the moment of beam EF at joint E.

3. The frame shown is subjected to lateral loads 30 kN and 15 kN acting at joint C and B
respectively. The columns are assumed to have equal cross-sectional areas. Use Cantilever
Method of Analysis.

a) Compute the axial load of column EF.

b) Compute the moment of beam BE at joint B.
c) Compute the moment at the base of column AB.

4. From the given frame shown and using Cantilever Method of Analysis;
a) Which of the following gives the location of the centroid from the right most column?
b) Which of the following gives the axial force at column CF?
17
Structural Theory 2

c) Which of the following gives the moment AD at joint D?

5. The frame shown is subjected to lateral loads acting on points M, I, and E. Assuming all
columns have equal areas and using Cantilever Method of Analysis.

a) Compute the axial load of column HD.

b) Compute the moment at the base of column AE.
c) Compute the moment of beam EF at joint E.

References:

Books:

 ASEP, NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES, 2015 ed.

 Aslam Kassimali, STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS, 4th ed.
 Matias Areola, STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
 R.C Hibbeler, STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS, 8TH ed.
 V. Besavilla, THEORY OF STRUCTURES

18
Structural Theory 2

19
Structural Theory 2

Lecture Notes 3
in
STRUCTURAL
THEORY 2
CE 06
Second semester
2022-2023
BSCE Curriculum 2018

Presented by: NENITA M. ABARADO

College of Engineering and Architecture
Bohol Island State University-Main Campus

1
Structural Theory 2

Lesson 2
Approximate Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures
Portal Trusses

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. identify the suitable assumptions for reducing the given indeterminate structure to a
determinate structure;
2. analyze the stresses of indeterminate structures using approximate method;
3. calculate the reactions and stresses of portal trusses and
4. draw the shear and moment diagrams of portal frames and trusses.

Time Frame: 3 hours

Introduction

According to Hussein Haydar et al., portal frames and portal truss structures are two of
the most cost‐effective and sustainable structural forms for the design and construction of long‐
span industrial buildings.

This structure is used in large bridges and as transverse bents for large auditoriums
and mill buildings. Portal truss may be pin supported, fixed supported or supported by a partial
fix.
 Assumptions:

 Pin connected columns-assume the horizontal reactions are equal. The point of
inflections occurs at mid span of the girder.

 Fixed supported columns –assume the horizontal reactions are equal. And an inflection
point occurs on each column and the lowest point of truss member’s connection to the
column.

 Partially fixed supported, point of inflection occurs 1/3 from the base of the column.

 General assumption:

 The horizontal shear at the base of the end point are equal.

 For multi Portals

 The end points are identical.

 The vertical reactions at the base of each end point is directly proportional from
the centroid of the cross sectional areas of the end posts.

 Procedure of Analysis:

 Determine the support reactions.

 Established the assumptions that are appropriate to the supports.

 Solve the stresses of the members of the truss using the method of sections and
method of joints simultaneously.

 Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the specified member.

2
Structural Theory 2

Examples:

1. Draw (approximately) the moment diagram for column ACE of the portals. Assume
that all points of connection are pins. Also, determine the force in the truss
members EG, CG, and CD.

Considering the whole structure:

ΣMA = 0 + ⤾
10 (60) + 5 (15) – 8By = 0
By = 10 (6) + 5 (15)
8
By = 24.375 kN (↑)

Considering Fig. B

H1 = H2 = H

ΣFx = 0 +→
5 + 10 – 2H = 0
H = 7.5 kN

Ax = Bx = H = 7.5 kN (←)

ΣFy = 0 ↑+
Ay + By = 0
Ay = - By
Ay = 7.5 kN (↓)

@ Section A-A

ΣMC = 0 + ⤾
EG (3) + 5(3) + 7.5 (12) = 0
EG = - 15 – 7.5 (12)
3
EG = - 35 kN
EG = 35 kN (C)

ΣFy = 0 ↑+
-24.375 + CG (3/5) = 0
CG = 24.375 (5/3)
CG = 40.625 kN (T)

ΣFx = 0 +→
CD + EG+ CG (4/5) + 5 + 10 – 7.5 = 0

3
Structural Theory 2

CD = 7.5 -15 –(-35) – 40.625 (4/5)

CD = - 5 kN
CD = 5 kN (C)

2. Solve Prob. 1 if the supports at A and B are fixed instead of pinned.

@ Segment 1A

ΣMA = 0 + ⤾
7.5 (6) – MA = 0
MA = 45 kN.m

@ Section A-A

ΣMC = 0 + ⤾
-45 + 5 (3) + EG (3) + 7.5 (12) = 0
EG = 45 – 15 – 7.5 (12)
3
EG = - 20 kN
EG = 20 kN (C)

ΣFy = 0 ↑+
CG (3/5) – 13. 125 = 0
CG = 13.125 (5/3)
CG = 21.875 kN (T)

ΣFx = 0 +→
EG – 75 + CD +CG (4/5) +10 + 5 = 0
CD = 7.5 – 15 – 21.875 (4/5) +20
CD = - 5 kN
CD = 5 kN (C)

3. Determine approximately the force in each truss member of the portal frame. Also
compute the reactions at the fixed column supports A and B. Assume all members
of the truss to be pin-connected at their ends.

4
Structural Theory 2

Let: 𝑨𝑿 = 𝑩𝑿 = V

∑𝐹𝐻 = 0 + →
𝐴𝑋 – 𝐵𝑋 + 10 + 15 = 0
10 + 15 – 2V = 0
2V = 25
25
V=
2
V= 12.5kN ←

𝑨𝑿 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 𝒌𝑵 ←
𝑩𝑿 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 𝒌𝑵 ←
 Considering the lower half of column

∑𝑀𝐴 = 0 + ↷ ∑𝐹𝑣 = 0 + ↑
− 𝑀𝐴 + 𝐴𝑥 (1.5) = 0 N − 𝐴𝒀 = 0
− 𝑀𝐴 + 12.5 (1.5) = 0 𝐴𝒀 = N → eq. 1
𝑴𝑨 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝑵. 𝒎 ↶

∑𝑀𝐵 = 0 + ↷ ∑𝐹𝑣 = 0 + ↑
− 𝑀𝐵 + 𝐵𝑥 (1.5) = 0 𝐵𝑌 − N = 0
− 𝑀𝐵 + 12.5 (1.5) = 0 𝐵𝒀 = N → eq. 2
𝑴𝑩 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝑵. 𝒎 ↶

 Considering the upper portion of column

∑MH = 0 + ↷
10 kN(3m) + 15 kN (1.5m) − N(4)= 0
𝐍= - 13. 125kN

 From equation 1 and 2

Ay = N
𝐀 𝐲 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝐤𝐍 ↓

𝐁𝐲 = N
𝐁𝐲 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝐤𝐍 ↑

∑MD = 0 + ↷
12.5(3) – CE (1.5) –15(1.5) = 0 DF = − 5kN
𝐂𝐄 = 𝟏𝟎 𝐤𝐍 (𝐓) 𝐃𝐅 = 𝟓 𝐤𝐍 (𝐂)

∑Fv = 0 + ↑ ∑Fv = 0 + ↑
3
–13.125kN – ( )DE = 0 3
13.5kN – ( )EF = 0
5 5
5
DE = (−13.125kN) 5
EF = (13.125kN)
3 3
DE = − 21.875 kN
𝐄𝐅 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟖𝟕𝟓 𝐤𝐍 (𝐓)
𝐃𝐄 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟖𝟕𝟓 𝐤𝐍 (𝐂)
∑Fh = 0 + →
4
– DF – EG – 12.5kN – ( )EF = 0
∑Fh = 0 + → 5
4 4
–12.5kN + 10kN + 15kN + DF + CE + DE = 0 −(−5) − EG − 12.5 − ( ) (21.875) = 0
5 5
4 EG = − 25 kN
12.5kN + DF + 10kN + (−21.875kN) = 0
5
4 𝐄𝐆 = 𝟐𝟓𝐤𝐍 (𝐂)
DF = (21.875kN) − 22.5kN
5

5
 NOTE:

The illustrations on the given

sample problems have some
discrepancies.

This time, you are going to make

some comments and recommendations to
make the illustrations complete.

Exercises:
CE 06 Plate 3: Portal Trusses

P3-1. Determine (approximately) the force in each truss member of the portal frame. Also find
the reactions at the fixed column supports A and B. Assume all members of the truss to be pin
connected at their ends.

8ft 8ft
G F
2𝑘
6ft

1𝑘
C D E

12ft

A B

P3-2. Solve Prob. P3-1 if the supports at A and B are pinned instead of fixed.

6
P3-3. Draw (approximately) the moment diagram for column AGF of the portal. Assume all
truss members and the columns to be pin connected at their ends. Also determine the force in
all the truss members.

2m 2m
F D
4𝑘𝑁
E 1.5m

8𝑘𝑁
G C

5m

A B

P3-4. Draw (approximately) the moment diagram for column AGF of the portal. Assume all the
members of the truss to be pin connected at their ends. The columns are fixed at A and B. Also
determine the force in all the truss members.

P3-5. Determine (approximately) the force in each truss member of the portal frame. Also find
the reactions at the fixed column supports A and B. Assume all members of the truss to be pin
connected at their ends.

1.5m 3m 1.5m

12kN F E D

2m
m
8kN
G H I C

6m
m

A 3m 3m B

7
P3-6. Solve Prob. P3-5 if the supports at A and B are pinned instead of fixed.

References:

Books:

 ASEP, NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES, 2015 ed.

 Aslam Kassimali, STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS, 4th ed.
 Matias Areola, STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
 R.C Hibbeler, STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS, 8 TH ed.
 V. Besavilla, THEORY OF STRUCTURES

Internet:

 [Link]

8
Structural Theory 2

Lecture Notes 4
in
STRUCTURAL
THEORY 2
CE 06
Second semester
2022-2023
BSCE Curriculum 2018

Presented by: NENITA M. ABARADO,C.E.

College of Engineering and Architecture
Bohol Island State University-Main Campus

1
Structural Theory 2

Lesson 4
Double Integration Method

Learning Objectives:

At the end of lesson, the students should be able to:

1. state the boundary, continuity and symmetry conditions;

2. derive the elastic-curve equation. using singularity function;
3. find the maximum displacement and its location in the beam and
4. determine the rotation at the supports.

Time frame: 5 hours

Introduction:

Structure deflections can occur from a variety of sources, such as loads, temperature,
manufacturing errors, or settlement. The structure must not be heavily deflected in order to be
safe for its occupants. More important, however, is that the deflections at the specified points in
the structure must be calculated if it is to examine statically indeterminate structures.

 Boundary and Continuity Conditions

Integration constants are calculated by measuring slope or displacement functions at a

given point on the beam where the function’s value is defined. These values are known as
boundary conditions.

 For example, if the beam is supported by a roller or pin, then it is required that the
displacement be zero at these points. Also, at a fixed support the slope and
displacement are both zero.

2
Structural Theory 2

 Procedure for Analysis

Elastic Curve
 Evaluate the bending moment at a given section
Recall that points of zero slope and zero displacement occur at a fixed support, and zero
displacement occurs at pin and roller supports. Establish the 𝑥 and 𝑣 coordinate axes. The 𝑥 axis
must be parallel to the undeflected beam and its origin at the left side of the beam, with a positive
direction to the right. If several discontinuous loads are present, establish 𝑥 coordinates that are
valid for each region of the beam between the discontinuities. In all cases, the associated positive
𝑣 axis should be directed upward.

Load for Moment Function

For each region in which there is an 𝑥 coordinate, express the internal moment 𝑀 as a
function of 𝑥. Always assume that 𝑀 acts in the positive direction when applying the question;

𝑀 = 𝑓(𝑥).

 Write the differential equation of the elastic curve

Slope and Elastic Curve

𝐸𝐼𝑑 2 𝑣
Provided EI is constant, apply the moment equation 2 = 𝑀(𝑥), which requires two
𝑑𝑥
integrations. For each integration, it is important to include a constant of integration. The
constants are determined using the boundary conditions for the supports and the continuity
conditions apply to slope and displacement at points where two functions meet.

 Evaluate, the constants of integration

Apply the following boundary conditions: When x = O, y = O; /. Once the integration constants
are determined and substituted back into the slope and deflection equations, the slope ad
displacement at specific points on the elastic curve can be determined. The numerical values can
be obtained can be checked graphically by comparing them with the sketch of the elastic curve.
 Write the slope and deflection equations
Positive values for slope are counter clockwise and positive displacement is upward.
 Find the slope at the supports
 Solve for the maximum deflection

Examples:

1. Each simply supported floor joist shown in the photo is subjected to a uniform design
loading of 4 kN/m. Determine the maximum deflection of the joist. EI is constant.

3
Structural Theory 2

Due to symmetry, the joist’s maximum deflection will occur its center. Only a single 𝑥 coordinate
is needed to determine the internal moment.

From the free body diagram, we have

𝑥
𝑀 = 20𝑥 − 4𝑥 ( ) = 20𝑥 − 2𝑥 2
2

Applying Eq. 1 and integrating it twice gives

𝑑2 𝑣
𝐸𝐼 = 20𝑥 − 2𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑𝑣
𝐸𝐼 = 10𝑥 2 − 0.6667𝑥 3 + 𝐶1 z
𝑑𝑥

𝐸𝐼𝑣 = 3.333𝑥 3 − 0.1667𝑥 4 + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2

Here 𝑣 = 0 at 𝑥 = 0 so that 𝐶2 = 0, and 𝑣 = 0 at 𝑥 = 10, so that 𝐶1 = −166.7. The equation of the

elastic curve is therefore

𝐸𝐼𝑣 = 3.333𝑥 3 − 0.1667𝑥 4 − 166.7𝑥

𝑑𝑣
At 𝑥 = 5 m, note that = 0.
𝑑𝑥

521
The maximum deflection is therefore 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − 2.
𝐸𝐼

2. The cantilevered beam shown in the figure below is subjected to a couple moment M0 at
its end. Determine the equation of the elastic curve. EI is constant

4
Structural Theory 2

Elastic Curve. The curve tends to deflect the beam as shown in the figure. By inspection, the
internal moment can be represented throughout the beam using a single x coordinate.

Moment Function. From the free-body diagram, with M acting in the positive direction, we have

𝑀 = 𝑀0

Slope and Elastic. Applying Eq. 1 and integrating twice yields

𝑑2 𝑣
𝐸𝐼 = 𝑀0 (1)
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑𝑣
𝐸𝐼 = 𝑀0 𝑥 + 𝐶1 (2)
𝑑𝑥

𝑀0 𝑥 2
𝐸𝐼𝑣 = + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2 (3)
2

𝑑𝑣
Using the boundary conditions = 0 at 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑣 = 0 at 𝑥 = 0, then 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = 0. Substituting
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣
these results into Eqs. (2) and (3) with 𝜃 = , we get
𝑑𝑥

𝑀0 𝑥
𝜃=
𝐸𝐼

𝑀0 𝑥 2
𝑣= (Ans.)
2𝐸𝐼

Maximum slope and displacement occur at 𝐴(𝑥 = 𝐿), for which

𝑀0 𝐿
𝜃𝐴 = (4)
𝐸𝐼

𝑀0 𝐿2
𝑣𝑎 = (5)
2𝐸𝐼

12𝑖𝑛 12𝑖𝑛
15𝑘∙𝑓𝑡( 𝑓𝑡 )(12𝑓𝑡)( 𝑓𝑡 )
𝜃𝐴 = = 0.0545 𝑟𝑎𝑑
29(103 )(𝑘/𝑖𝑛2 )(16.4𝑖𝑛4 )

12𝑖𝑛 12𝑖𝑛
15𝑘∙𝑓𝑡( 𝑓𝑡 )(12𝑓𝑡)2 ( 𝑓𝑡 )2
𝑣𝐴 = 𝑘 = 3.92 in.
2(29)(103 )( 2)(16.4𝑖𝑛4 )
𝑖𝑛

Note:
For examples 3 & 4, observe the use of singularity function with pointed brackets.

3. Determine the value of EIy midway between the supports for the beam loaded as shown.

5
Structural Theory 2

Solution:

ΣMRB = 0 +↻

R1(6) + 200(4)(0) – 1800 = 0

RA = 300 N ↑

ΣFy = 0 +↑

300 – 200(4) + R2 = 0

RB = 500 N ↑

ΣMX = 0 +↻
(x−4)
-MX + 300x – 1800( x - 2)0 + 500(x - 6) – 200(x - 4) =0
2

MX = 300x – 1800(x -2)0 + 500(x - 6)

- 100(x - 4)2

EIy”= 300x –1800<x - 2>0 + 500<x - 6> -100<x - 4>2

100
EIy’ = 150x – 1800<x - 2> + 250<x - 6>2 - <x - 4>3 + C1
3

250
EIy = 50x3 – 900<x -2>2 + <x - 6>3
3

25
- <x - 4>4 + C1x + C2
3

6
Structural Theory 2

Boundary Conditions:

@ x = 0, y = 0; C2 = 0

@ x = 6m, y = 0
250 25
0 = 50(6)3 – 900(6 - 2)2 + (6 -6)3 - (6 - 4)4 + C1(6)
3 3

5600
C1 = N.m3
9

@ x = 3m
5600
EIy = 50(3)3 – 900(1)2 + (3)
9

EIy = 2316.67 N.m3 (ans)

4. Compute the value of EIy at midspan for the beam loaded as shown. If E = 10 GPa, what
1
value of I is required to limit the midspan deflection to of the span?
360

SOLUTION:

ΣMR1 = 0 +↻

R1(4) - 300(2)(3) = 0

R1 = 450 N ↑

7
Structural Theory 2

ΣFy = 0 +↑

450 + R2 – 300(2) = 0

R2 = 150 N ↑

300 2 300
EIy" = 450x − x + (x − 2)2
2 2
EIy" = 450x − 150x 2 + 150 < x − 2 >2

EIy′ = 225x 2 − 50x 3 + 50 < x − 2 >3 + C1

25 4 25
EIy = 75x 3 − x + < x − 2 >4 + C1x + C2
2 2
Boundary Conditions:

@x = 0, y = 0; C2 = 0

@x = 4m, y = 0

25 25
0 = 75(4)3 − (4)4 + (4 − 2)4 + 4C1
2 2
C1 = -450 N.m3

@x = 2m (midspan)

25 25
EIy = 75(2)3 − (2)4 + (2 − 2)4 − 2(450)
2 2
EIy = -500 N.m3

EIδ = 500 N.m3 (ans)

Δmax @ midspan:
1 1 1
Δ = 360 L = (4) = (1000)mm
360 90

100
Δ= mm
9

EIδ = 500 N.m3

500(1000)3
I= 100
10000( )
9

8
Structural Theory 2

I = 4.5 x 106 mm4 (ans)

5.

Exercises: (Use the singularity function).

Plate No. 4

1. A simply supported beam has a span of L and carries a uniformly distributed load of W
kN/m throughout its span. Compute the deflection at midspan. Assuming EI is constant.

2. Determine the slope at A of the simply supported beam that carries a triangular loadings.
Assuming EI is constant.

3. The bar is supported by a roller constraint at B, which allows vertical displacement but
resists axial load and moment. If the bar is subjected to the loading shown, determine the
deflection at B of the bar. Assuming EI is constant.

4. Determine the slope at A of the simply supported beam. Assuming EI is constant.

9
Structural Theory 2

5. Determine the slope at point B of the cantilevered beam.

E = 29X103 Ksi I = 500 in4

References:

Books:

ASEP, NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES, 2015 ed.

Aslam Kassimali, STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS, 4th ed.
Matias Areola, STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
R.C Hibbeler, STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS, 8TH ed.
V. Besavilla, THEORY OF STRUCTURES

YouTube links:

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

10
 Lecture Notes 5
in
STRUCTURAL
THEORY 2
CE06
Second Semester
2020-2021
BSCE Curriculum 2018

Presented by: NENITA M. ABARADO, Ph.D., C.E.

College of Engineering and Architecture
Bohol Island State University-Main Campus

1
 Lesson 5
Area Moment Method

Learning Objectives:

At the end of lesson, the students should be able to:

1. determine the geometrical area and centroid of the moment diagram by parts;
2. visualize the shape of a beam’s elastic curve;
3. find the change of slope and tangential deviation between points;
4. establish the relationship between the first and second theorems of area to the slope and
deflection of beam and
5. analyze determinate and indeterminate beam –deflection and slope by Area Moment
Method.

Time frame: 5 hours

Introduction

Otto Mohr developed the initial ideas for the two moment-area theorems, and Charles
E. Greene formally stated these later in 1873. These theorems include a semi-graphical
technique for calculating the slope of the elastic curve as well as its deflection due to bending.
They are particularly advantageous when used to solve problems involving beams, especially
those subjected to a series of concentrated loads or segments with different moments of inertia.

This method involves the area of the moment diagram.

 General Formulas for Geometrical area and centroid of the second degree curve.
Kindly refer to the reference book (Hibbeler 8th ed.)

Loading diagram
diagram

M/EI diagram

2
Theorem I

The change in slope between the tangents drawn to the elastic curve at any two points A and
B is equal to the product of 1/EI multiplied by the area of the moment diagram between these
two points.
𝐵
𝑀
θB/A = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝐴 𝐸𝐼

1
or θAB = 𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴𝐴𝐵
𝐸𝐼

 The notation θB/A is referred to as the angle of the tangent at B measured with
respect to the tangent at A.
 This angle is measured counterclockwise from tangent A to tangent B if the area of
the M/EI diagram is positive, if this area is negative, or below the x axis, the angle
θB/A is measured clockwise from tangent A to tangent B.
 Moreover, θB/A is measured in radians.

M/EI diagram

Elastic curve
diagram

3
Theorem II.

 The vertical deviation of the tangent at a point (A) on the elastic curve with respect to
the tangent extended from another point (B) equals the “moment” of the area under the
M/EI diagram between the two points (A and B).
 This moment is computed about point A (the point on the elastic curve), where the
deviation tA/B is to be determined.
 This deviation is measured along a vertical line passing through point A. the vertical
deviation of the tangent at A with respect to the tangent at B can be found by integration,
𝐵
𝑀
t A/B = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐴 𝐸𝐼

Where:
𝑀 𝑀
∫ 𝑑𝑥 - area of the
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
diagram,

x - distance from the vertical axis through A to the centroid of the area
between A and B, as shown below.

 The moment of the positive M / EI area from A to B implies that the tangent at point A
is above the tangent at the curve extended from point B. Similarly, the negative M / EI
areas mean that the tangent at A is below the tangent extended from B.

 Note that in general t A/B is not equal t B/A

 The moment of the area under the M/EI diagram between A and B is computed about
point A to determine t A/B .

 It is computed about point B to determine t B/A .

 The deviation of any point B relative to the tangent drawn to the elastic curve at any
other point A, in a direction perpendicular to the original position of the beam, is equal
to the product of 1/EI multiplied by the moment of an area about B of that part of the
moment diagram between points A and B.

1
t B/A = 𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴𝐴𝐵 (𝑋𝐵 )
𝐸𝐼

4
(8-15)

5
Rules of Sign

Procedure to determine the displacement and slope at a point on the elastic curve of a beam
using the moment-area theorems.

M/EI Diagram

• Determine the support reactions and draw the beam’s M/EI diagram.

• If the beam is loaded with concentrated forces, the M/EI diagram will consist of a series of
straight line segments, and the areas and their moments required for the moment-
area theorems will be relatively easy to compute.

• If the loading consists of a series of concentrated forces and distributed loads, it may be
simpler to compute the required M/EI areas and their moments by drawing the M/EI
diagram in parts, using the method of superposition as discussed in Sec. 4–5. In any
case, the M/EI diagram will consist of parabolic or perhaps higher-order curves, and it
is suggested that the table on the inside back cover be used to locate the area and
centroid under each curve. Elastic Curve

• Draw an exaggerated view of the beam’s elastic curve. Recall that points of zero
slope occur at fixed supports and zero displacement occurs at all fixed, pin,
and roller supports.

• If it becomes difficult to draw the general shape of the elastic curve, use the
moment (or M/EI) diagram. Realize that when the beam is subjected to a
positive moment the beam bends concave up, whereas negative moment
bends the beam concave down. Furthermore, an inflection point or change in
curvature occurs where the moment in the beam (or M/EI) is zero.

• The displacement and slope to be determined should be indicated on the curve.

Since the moment-area theorems apply only between two tangents, attention
should be given as to which tangents should be constructed so that the angles
or deviations between them will lead to the solution of the problem. In this

6
 regard, the tangents at the points of unknown slope and displacement and at
the supports should be considered, since the beam usually has zero
displacement and/or zero slope at the supports. Moment-Area Theorems

• Apply Theorem 1 to determine the angle between two tangents, and Theorem 2 to
determine vertical deviations between these tangents.

• Realize that Theorem 2 in general will not yield the displacement of a point on the elastic
curve. When applied properly, it will only give the vertical distance or deviation of a
tangent at point A on the elastic curve from the tangent at B.

• After applying either Theorem 1 or Theorem 2, the algebraic sign of the answer can be
verified from the angle or deviation as indicated on the elastic curve.

Examples:

1. Determine the slope at points B and C of the beam shown in Fig. 8–16a. Take E =
2911032 ksi and I = 600 in4.

SOLUTION

M/EI Diagram.

Elastic Curve.

7
  Moment-Area Theorem

3 𝑘 𝑓𝑡 1 60 𝑘 𝑓𝑡 30 𝑘 𝑓𝑡 675 𝑘 𝑓𝑡 2
θ𝐵 = θ𝐵 = − ( ) (15 𝑓𝑡) − ( − ) (15 𝑓𝑡)= −
𝐴
𝐸𝐼 2 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼

−675 𝑘 𝑓𝑡 2 (144𝑖𝑛2 /1 𝑓𝑡 2 )
θ𝐵 = = −0.00559 𝑟𝑎𝑑
29(103 )𝑘/𝑖𝑛2 (600 𝑖𝑛4 )

The negative sign indicates that the angle is measured clockwise from A, Fig. c.

The area under the M/EI diagram between points A and C equals θ C/A.

1 60 𝑘 𝑓𝑡 900 𝑘 𝑓𝑡 2
θ𝐶 = θ𝐶 = 2 (− ) (30 𝑓𝑡)=
𝐴
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼

−900 𝑘 𝑓𝑡 2 (144𝑖𝑛2 /1 𝑓𝑡 2 )
θ𝐶 = = −0.00745 𝑟𝑎𝑑
29(103 )𝑘/𝑖𝑛2 (600 𝑖𝑛4 )

2. Determine the slope at point C of the beam in Fig. A. E = 200 GPa, I = 6(106) mm4.

M/EI Diagram.

8
Elastic Curve.

The tangent at D is horizontal, the angle θ D/C between tan C and tan D is equal to θ𝐶 ;

θ C = θ D/C

Moment-Area Theorem

Theorem 1: θ D/C is equal to the shaded area under the M/EI diagram between points C and
D.

30 𝑘𝑛 𝑚 1 60 𝑘𝑛 𝑚 30 𝑘𝑛 𝑚 135 𝑘𝑁 𝑚2
θ𝐶 = θ𝐷 = 3𝑚 ( ) + 2 (3𝑚) ( − )=
𝐶
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼

135 𝑘𝑁 𝑚2
θ𝐶 = = 0.112 𝑟𝑎𝑑
200(106 )𝑘𝑁 6 )(10−12 )𝑚4 ]
[ ] [6(10
𝑚2

3 .Find the value of the deflection under each load of the beam shown.
a. using area-moment method
b. double-integration method

9
Solution:

a. area-moment method

∑MA = 0 + ↻

200 (3) + 400 (7) – DY (8)= 0

DY = 425 lb

∑FY = 0 +↑

AY + DY – 200 – 400 = 0

AY = 175 lb

1 2 1 11 1
[ (425)(1)( )]+ [425(4)(3)]+[ (100)(4)( )]+ [ (525)(3)(18)]
2 3 2 3 2
𝑡𝐷 =
𝐴 𝐸𝐼

10700 𝑙𝑏.𝑓𝑡 3
𝑡𝐷 =
𝐴 𝐸𝐼

1 8 1
[425(4)(2)]+[ (100)(4)( )]+ [ (525)(3)(5)]
2 3 2
𝑡𝐶 =
𝐴 𝐸𝐼

10
 47225
𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡 3
6
𝑡𝐶 =
𝐴 𝐸𝐼

1
[ (525)(3)(1)]
2
𝑡𝐵 =
𝐴 𝐸𝐼

787.5
𝑡𝐵 =
𝐴 𝐸𝐼

By r.a.p.
𝑡𝐷 ∆ 𝐵 + 𝑡𝐵
𝐴 𝐴
=
8 3

3𝑡𝐷 = 8∆𝐵 + 8 𝑡𝐵
𝐴 𝐴

10700 𝑙𝑏.𝑓𝑡 3 787.5

8∆𝐵 = 3( )-8( )
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼

3225 𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡 3
∆𝐵 =
𝐸𝐼

𝑡𝐷 ∆𝐶 + 𝑡 𝐶
𝐴 𝐴
=
8 7

7𝑡𝐷 = 8∆𝐶 + 8 𝑡𝐶
𝐴 𝐴

47225
10700 𝑙𝑏.𝑓𝑡 3 6
𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡 3
8∆𝐶 = 7( )-8( )
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼

1491.67 𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡 3
∆𝐶 =
𝐸𝐼

 Check by using *double-integration method

∑MX = 0 + ↻

MX = 175x -200 (x-3) – 400 (x-7)

11
EIy” = 175 (x) – 200 <x – 3> - 400 <x – 7>

𝑥2 200<𝑥−3>2 400<𝑥−7>2
EIy’= 87.5 ( 2 ) – - + C1
2 2

𝑥3 100<𝑥−3>3 200<𝑥−7>3
EIy = 87.5 ( ) – - + C 1 x + C2
3 3 3

when: x = 0, y =0; C2 = 0

when: x = 8, y’ =0 ; C1 = -1337.5

at load 200lb: x= 3ft

33
EIy= 87.5 ( ) -1337.5 (3)
3

3225 𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡 3
y200lb = ∆𝐵 = 𝐸𝐼

at load 400lb: x =7 ft

73 100(4)3
EIy = 87.5 ( ) – - 1337.5 (7)
3 3

1491.67 𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡 3
y400lb = ∆𝐶 =
𝐸𝐼

Exercises
Plate No. 5

Problems
Solve the following problems as indicated by the area-moment method and check your
solutions using the double integration method.

1. Determine the slope at the roller B of the double overhang beam shown in figure
below. Take E = 200 GPa, I = 18(106) mm4.

12
 2. Determine the slope at point C of the beam in Fig. 8–19a. E = 29(103) ksi,
I = 600 in4.

3. Determine the deflection at point C of the beam shown in item #2. . E = 200 GPa,
I = 250(106) mm4.

Note: If you have any questions about the given problems, simply contact your
instructor through gchat.

References:

Aslam Kassimali ,STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 4e , p. 240

R.C Hibbeler STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS ,6e, 8e, p.318
[Link]

You tube links:

[Link]
[Link]

13
 Lesson 6
Conjugate Beam Method

Learning Objectives:

At the end of lesson, the students should be able to:

1. construct the moment diagram by parts of the loaded real beam;

2. draw the loaded conjugate beams including supports to the given real beam
and
3. determine the displacement and deflection at a point on the beam using the
conjugate-beam method.

Time frame: 5 hours

Introduction

The conjugate beam is an imaginary beam corresponding to the actual beam

and loaded with the M / EI diagram of the actual beam such that the shear and the
moment at either point of the conjugate beam are equal to the slope and the deflection
at the corresponding point of the actual beam. The conjugate beam method was
invented by Christian Otto Mohr (1835 – 1918), a German civil engineer and one of the
most celebrated civil engineers of the 19th century.

The method is based on the analogy between the relationships among load,
shear, and bending moment and the relationships among M/EI, slope, and deflection.

Slope on real beam = Shear on conjugate beam

Deflection on real beam = Moment on conjugate beam

Here the shear V compares with the slope θ, the moment M compares with the
displacement v, and the external load w compares with the M/EI diagram

 Properties of Conjugate Beam

1. The length of a conjugate beam is always equal to the length of the actual
beam.
2. The load on the conjugate beam is the M/EI diagram of the loads on the actual
beam.
3. A simple support for the real beam remains simple support for the conjugate
beam.

1
 4. A fixed end for the real beam becomes free end for the conjugate beam.
5. The point of zero shear for the conjugate beam corresponds to a point of zero
slope for the real beam.
6. The point of maximum moment for the conjugate beam corresponds to a point
of maximum deflection for the real beam.

Supports of Conjugate Beam

Recognizing that the slope on the real beam is equal to the shear on the
conjugate beam and that the deflection on the real beam is equal to the moment on the
conjugate beam, the shear and bending moment at any point on the conjugate beam
must be consistent at this same point both with slope and the deflection on the real
beam.

Beam and Conjugate

The following are some examples of beams and it’s conjugate. Loadings are omitted.

2
  Procedure For Analysis

A method that is used to determine the displacement and slope at a point on a beam's
elastic curve using the conjugate-beam method is given in the following procedure.

Conjugate beam

• For the real beam, draw its conjugate beam. This beam is of the same length as
the real beam and has the corresponding supports as indicated above.

 In particular, if the real support allows a slope, the shear must be formed by the
conjugate support, and if the real support allows a displacement, a moment must
develop by the conjugate support.

3
 • The conjugate beam is loaded with the real M / EI beam diagram. This loading
is considered to be applied over the conjugate beam and is directed upward
when M / EI is positive and downward when M / EI is negative.

Equilibrium
 Determine the reactions at the support of the conjugate beams using the
equilibrium equations.

 Cut the conjugate beam into section at the point where the slope θ and the
displacement Δ of the actual beam are to be calculated. Show the unknown
shear V 'and M' acting positive sense in the segment.

• Determine the shear V' and the moment M' by using the equilibrium equations
on the conjugate beam and these are equal to θ and Δ, respectively,for the real
beam. In particular, if these values are positive, slope is counterclockwise and
the displacement is upward.

Example 1:

1. Calculate the maximum deflection for the beam shown below.

4
 (𝟐𝟏𝟎𝟎)(𝟏𝟓.𝟓)−(𝟎.𝟓)(𝟓)(𝟏𝟑𝟑)(𝟏𝟐.𝟕)−(𝟏𝟎.𝟓)(𝟏𝟑𝟑)(𝟓.𝟐𝟓)−(𝟎.𝟓)(𝟏𝟎.𝟓)(𝟕𝟎)(𝟑.𝟓)
𝜟𝜹max = 𝑬𝑰

𝟏𝟗,𝟖𝟗𝟎𝐟𝐭 𝟑 −𝑲 (𝟏𝟗,𝟖𝟗𝟎)(𝟏𝟕𝟐𝟖)(𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎)
= = (𝟐𝟗𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 )(𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎)
= 0.790 in.
𝑬𝑰

2. Determine the deflections at points A and B in the overhanging beam below.

5
Show the solution to the problem..

Exercises:

Plate 6.

Solve the following problems using conjugate beam method.

Check your solutions using double-integration and area-moment methods.

1. Using the conjugate beam method Compute the reactions, and slope at right
support. Use E=15000MPa, I=200mm4

2. Determine the free end deflection if P is 10kN-m.

6
 3. Solve the problems: a) 8-12, b) 8-13, c) 8-18, d) 8-19, e) 8-20 and f) 8-21 on
page 335 of Structural Analysis 8th edition by Russel Hibbeler.

References:

1. RB 4- R.C Hibbeler STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS ,6e, 8e

2. RB 5- V. Besavilla, THEORY OF STRUCTURES
3. [Link]
4. [Link]

For note taking activity 4:

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

7
Structural Theory 2

Lesson 7
Virtual work Method on Trusses

Learning Objectives:

At the end of lesson, the students should be able to:

1. determine the deflection of the truss due to external loads, temperature change and
fabrication error;
2. follow the procedure in determining the deflection and angle of rotation using virtual work
method;
3. organize the results of the analysis carefully and
4. analyze the deflection and angle of rotation of trusses using the virtual work method.

Time frame: 5 hours

Introduction:

The principle of virtual work was developed by John Bernoulli in 1717 and is sometimes
referred to as the unit-load method. It provides a general means of obtaining the displacement
and slope at a specific point on a structures, be it a beam, frame or truss. We can use the method
of virtual work to determine the displacement of a truss joint when the truss is subjected to an
external loading, temperature change, or fabrication errors.
nNL
Formula for external loading, 1∙∆=∑
AE

Where:

1=external virtual unit load acting on the truss joint in the stated direction ∆.

n=internal virtual normal force in a truss member caused by the external virtual unit load.

∆=external joint displacement caused by the real loads on the truss.

N=internal normal force in a truss member caused by the real loads.

L=length of a member.

A=cross-sectional area of a member.

E=modulus of elasticity of a member.

In some cases, truss members may change their length due to temperature. If 𝛼 is the
coefficient of thermal expansion for a member and ∆T is the change in its temperature, the change
in length of a member is ∆L=𝛼∆TL.

Equation due to temperature; 1∙∆=∑n𝛼∆TL

1
Structural Theory 2

Where:

∆=external joint displacement caused by the temperature change

𝛼=coefficient of thermal expansion of member

∆T=change in temperature.

Occasionally, errors in fabricating the lengths of the members of the truss may occur. Also,
in some cases truss members must be made slightly longer or shorter in order to give the truss a
camber. Camber is often built into a bridge truss so that the bottom chord will curve upward by an
amount equivalent to the downward deflection of the cord when subjected to the bridge’s full dead
weight.

Formula for fabricating errors and camber; 1∙∆=∑NnL.

Where:

∆=external joint displacement caused by the fabricating errors.

∆L=difference in length of the member from its intended size as caused by a fabricating
errors.

Procedure for Analysis:

The following procedure may be used to determine a specific displacement of any joint on
a truss using the method of virtual work.

1. Virtual force n
 Place the unit load on the truss at the joint where the desired displacement is to be
determined. The load should be in the same direction as the specified displacement,
e.g., horizontal or vertical.
 With the unit load so placed, and all the real loads removed from the truss, use the
method of joints or the method of sections and calculate the internal n force in each truss
member. Assume that tensile forces are positive and compressive forces are negative.

2. Real force N
 Use the method of sections or the method of joints to determine the N force in each
member. These forces are caused only by the real loads acting on the truss. Again,
assume tensile forces are positive and compressive forces are negative.

3. Virtual-work Equation
 Apply the equation of virtual work, to determine the desired displacement. It is important
to retain the algebraic sign for each of the corresponding n and N forces when
substituting these terms into the equation.

 If the resultant sum ∑nNL ⁄AE is positive, the displacement ∆ is in the same direction as
the unit load. If a negative value results, ∆ is opposite to the unit load.

2
Structural Theory 2

 When applying 1∙ ∆=∑n𝛼∆𝑇𝐿, realize that if any of the members undergoes an increase
in temperature, ∆T will be positive, whereas a decrease in temperature results in a
negative value for ∆T.
 For 1∙ ∆=∑n∆L, when a fabrication error increases the length of a member, ∆L is positive,
whereas a decrease in length is negative.

 When applying any formula, attention should be paid to the units of each numerical
quantity. In particular, the virtual unit load can be assigned any arbitrary unit (N, kN, etc.),
since the n forces will have these same units, and as result the units for both the virtual
unit load and the n forces will cancel from both sides of the equation.

In a similar manner, if the tangent rotation or slope angle θ at point A on the beam’s
elastic curve is to be determined a unit couple moment is first applied at the point, and the
corresponding internal moments mθ have to be determined. Since the work of the unit couple is
1 · θ, then
𝐿 𝑚𝑀
1 · θ = ∫0 dx
𝐸𝐼

Procedures/Steps for Analysis:

1) Virtual Moments m or mθ
 Place a unit load on the beam or frame at the point and in the direction of the desired
displacement.
 If the slope is to be determined, place a unit couple moment at the point.
 Establish appropriate x coordinates that are valid within regions of the beam of frame
where there is no discontinuity of real or virtual load.
 With the virtual load in place, and all the real loads removed from the beam or frame,
calculate the internal moment m or mθ as a function of each x coordinate.
 Assume m or mθ acts in the conventional positive direction as indicated in figure.

2) Real Moments
 Using the same x coordinates as those established for m or mθ, determine the
internal moments M caused only by the real loads.
 Since m or mθ was assumed to act in the conventional positive direction, it is
important that positive M acts in this same direction. This is necessary since positive
or negative internal work depends upon the directional sense of load (defined by ±m
or ±mθ) and displacement (defined by ±M dx /EI).

3) Virtual-Work Equation
 Apply the equation of virtual work to determine the desired displacement Δ or rotation θ.
It is important to retain the algebraic sign of each integral calculated within its specified
region.
 If the algebraic sum of all the integrals for the entire beam or frame is positive, Δ or θ is
in the same direction as the virtual unit load or unit couple moment, respectively. If a
negative value results, the direction of Δ or θ is opposite to that of the unit load or unit
couple moment.

3
Structural Theory 2

Examples:

1. Determine the vertical displacement of joint C of the steel truss shown. The cross sectional
area of each member is A=300 mm 2 and E= 200 GPa.

F E
3m

A B C D
20kN 20kN

3m 3m 3m

Solution:.

Virtual force n. Only a vertical 1-KN load is placed at joint, and the force in each member
is calculated using the method of joints. Positive numbers indicate tensile forces and negative
numbers indicate compressive forces.

-0.333 kN

0.333kN - 0.943kN

- 0.471 kN - o.471 kN 1 kN

0.333 kN 0.667 kN 0.667 kN

0.333kN 1 kN 0.667 kN

Virtual forces n

Real force N. The real forces in the members are calculated using the method of joint.

-20 kN

20 kN

-28.3 kN 0 20 kN -28.3 kN

20 kN 20 kN 20 kN

20 kN 20 kN 20 kN 20 kN

Real forces N

4
Structural Theory 2

Work-virtual equation. Arranging the data in tabular form we have.

Member n (kN) N (kN) L (m) nNL (kN2∙m)

AB 0.333 20 3 20

BC 0.667 20 3 40

CD 0.667 20 3 40

DE -0.943 -28.3 4.24 113

FE -0.333 -20 3 20

EB -0.471 0 4.24 0

BF 0.333 20 3 20

AF -0.471 -28.3 4.24 56.6

CE 1 20 3 60

∑=369.6
nNL
Thus 1kN∙∆Cv = ∑ = (369.6 kN2∙m)/AE
AE
Converting the units and substituting the values for A and E, we have
1 kN∙∆Cv = 396.6 kN2∙m⁄[300(10-6)m2][200(106)kN/m2]
∆Cv = 0.0016m = 6.16 mm Ans.

2. The cross-sectional area of each member of the truss shown is A=400mm 2 and E= 200GPa.
(a.) Determine the vertical displacement of joint C if a 4-kN force is applied to the truss at C. (b)
If no loads act on the truss, what would be the vertical displacement of joint C if member AB were
5mm too short.

C 4kN

3m

A B

4m 4m

Solution:
Part (a)

5
Structural Theory 2

Virtual force n. Since the vertical displacement of joint C is to be determined, a virtual force
of 1 kN is to be applied at C in the vertical direction. The units of this force are the same as those
of the real loading. The support reaction at A and B are calculated and the n force in each member
is determined by the method of joints.

1kN

C 0.833kN 0.833kN -
0.833 kN -0.833kN 5 3 5 3

A B A 4 0.667kN 0.667kN 4 B

0.5 kN 0.5 kN 0.5 kN 0.5 kN

virtual force n

Real Force N. The joint analysis of A and B when the real load of 4 kN is applied to the truss.

C 4kN 2.5kN 2.5kN

2.5kN 2.5kN 5 3 3 5

4 4

4kN A 2kN B 4kN A 2kN 2kN B

1.5kN 1.5kN 1.5kN 1.5kN
real force N

Virtual-Work Equation. Since AE is constant, each of the terms nNL can be arranged in tabular
form and computed. Positive numbers indicate tensile forces and negative numbers indicate
compressive forces.

Member n (kN) N (kN) L (m) nNL (kN2∙m)

AB 0.667 2 8 10.67

AC -0.833 2.5 5 -10.41

CB -0.833 -2.5 5 10.41

∑=10.67

Thus

6
Structural Theory 2

nNL
1kN ∙ ∆Cv = ∑ = 10.67kN2 ∙ m/AE
AE
Substituting the values A= 400mm 2 = 400 (10-6) m2, E= 200 GPa = 200 (106) kN/m2, we have
1kN ∙ ∆Cv = 10.67kN2/400 (106) m2 (200 (106) kN/m2)
∆Cv = 0.000133 m = 0.133 mm Ans.

Part b. Only member AB undergoes a change, namely of ∆L = -0.005 m. Thus

1∙∆Cv= ∑n∆L
1kN∙∆Cv= (0.667kN)(-0.005m)
∆Cv= -0.00333m = -3.33 mm Ans.

The negative sign indicates that joint C is displaced upward, opposite to the 1kN vertical load and
fabrication error are both accounted for, the resultant displacement is then
∆𝐶v = 0.133 − 3.33 = −3.20 mm (Upward).

2. Determine the slope of member bd. (students’ activity).

For the Warren truss shown in the figure, find the angle through which member BD of
the truss rotates.

7
Structural Theory 2

Figure for the virtual unit couple n

Results and computations:

Member L(mm) A (mm2) 𝐿 N (kN) nBC (kN) 𝑁𝑛𝐵𝐶 𝐿

𝐴 𝐴
AB 7, 221.1 12, 000 0.601 -96.148 -0.401 23.172
AC 8000 10,000 0.8 53.33 2/9 9.481
BC 7, 221.1 12, 000 0.601 96.158 -0.801 -46.286
BD 8000 12, 000 0.667 -106.667 0.222 -15.787
CD 7, 221.1 12, 000 0.601 12.019 0.801 5.786
CE 8000 10,000 0.8 100.00 -0.666 -53.28
DE 7, 221.1 12, 000 0.601 -12.109 0.401 -2.897
DF 8000 12, 000 0.667 -93.334 0.445 -27.703
EF 7, 221.1 12, 000 0.601 84.13 -0.401 -20.275
EG 8000 10,000 0.8 46.67 -2/9 -8.297
FG 7, 221.1 12, 000 0.601 -84.13 0.401 -20.275
𝑁𝑛 𝐿 -156.361
∑ 𝐵𝐶 :
𝐴

Slope of member BC
∑𝑁 𝑛𝐵𝐶𝐿
1 kN ∆𝐵𝐶 =
𝐴𝐸

−156.361
∆𝐵𝐶 =
200

∆𝐵𝐶 =0.781805 mm
∆𝐵𝐶 0.781805
𝜃𝐵𝐶 = =
𝐿𝐵𝐶 8000𝑚𝑚

𝜃𝐵𝐶 = 9.773 x 10−5 rad

𝜃𝐵𝐶 = 0.0056°

8
Exercises
Plate 6.
1. Use the virtual work method to
determine the horizontal and
vertical components of the
deflection at joint B of the truss
shown in the figures 1 and 2.

2.

3.
Find: ∆𝐵𝑉 , ∆𝐵𝐻 , 𝜃𝐵𝐶 , on the truss shown.

References:
 Matias A. Areola , Theory of Structures
 Aslam Kassimali , Structural Analysis 2nd Edition
 R.C. Hibbeler , Structural Analysis 6th Edition

You tube links:

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

9
Structural Theory 2

Lesson 8
Moment Distribution Method

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. derive the fixed end moment formula for moment distribution;

2. calculate the stiffness factor of the member of the beam/frame;
3. establish the distribution factor at the joints/supports and distribute the balance values
through the carry-over moments;
4. determine the moments and reactions at the supports/joints and
5. apply the method to analyze the shear and moment of the yielded beams and frames with
and without side sway.

Time frame: 12 hours

Introduction:

The method of analyzing beams and frames using Moment Distribution was developed
by Hardy Cross, in 1932. Moment Distribution is a method of successive approximations that
may be carried out to any desired degree of accuracy depending upon the number of
corrections.

Moment distribution is a method of successive approximations that may be carried out

to any desired degree of accuracy. Essentially, the method begins by assuming each joint of a
structure is fixed. Then, by unlocking and locking each joint in succession, the internal moments
at the joints are ‘distributed’ and balanced until the joints have rotated to their final or nearly
final positions. The calculating process is both repetitive and easy to apply.

 DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS

 Signs and conventions.

Clockwise moments that act on the members are positive, and the counter-clockwise is
negative.

 Stiffness Factor (k):

𝟒𝐄𝐈
It is usually denoted as K: K= 𝐋
(beam stiffness)

𝐈
K= (relative beam stiffness)
𝐋

1
Structural Theory 2

For the regular method, we use K= I/L .

For the modified method, we use K=4EI/L if the far end is fixed and K=3EI/L if
the far end is simple-supported.

 Distribution factor

Ratio of distribution of unbalanced moment to any beam.

𝐊
DF= ∑𝐊

K= stiffness factor for that beam

∑K= sum of stiffness factors for adjacent beams

Note: DF = 0 , if fixed support ;

DF = 1.0 , if end support are roller/pin

 Carry-Over Factor:
The carry over factor represents the fractions of M that is “carried over” from the pin to
the wall. The carry over factor for a beam with far end fixed is+1/2. The plus sign
indicates both moments act in the same direction.

 Fixed-End Moments (FEM):

The moments at the “walls” or fixed joints of a loaded member are called Fixed-End
Moments. The moments are determined using the table at the next page. Assume
moment at the left end is negative and moment at the right end is positive.

2
Structural Theory 2

3
Structural Theory 2

Fixed−End Moments

Case N0.1

𝒂 𝒃

A B

DERIVATION:

𝒂 𝒃

𝑳𝟎 L 𝑳𝟐

Span 0 Span 1 Span 2

 Considering spans 0 and 1

6𝐴0 𝑎̅0
=0
𝐿0
6𝐴𝑏̅ 𝑃𝑏 2
= (𝐿 − 𝑏 2 )
𝐿 𝐿

6𝐴0 𝑎̅0 6𝐴𝑏̅

𝑀0 𝐿0 + 2𝑀𝐴 (𝐿0 + 𝐿) + 𝑀𝐵 𝐿 + + =0
𝐿0 𝐿
𝑃𝑏 2
0 + 2𝑀𝐴 (0 + 𝐿) + 𝑀𝐵 𝐿 + 0 + (𝐿 − 𝑏 2 ) = 0
𝐿
𝑃𝑏 2
2𝑀𝐴 𝐿 + 𝑀𝐵 𝐿 + (𝐿 − 𝑏2 ) = 0 (𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟏)
𝐿

 Considering spans 1 and 2

4
Structural Theory 2

6𝐴𝑎̅ 𝑃𝑎 2
= (𝐿 − 𝑎 2 )
𝐿 𝐿
6𝐴2 𝑏̅2
=0
𝐿2

6𝐴𝑎̅ 6𝐴2 𝑏̅2

𝑀𝐴 𝐿 + 2𝑀𝐵 (𝐿 + 𝐿2 ) + 𝑀2 𝐿2 + + =0
𝐿 𝐿2
𝑃𝑎 2
𝑀𝐴 𝐿 + 2𝑀𝐵 (𝐿 + 0) + 0 + (𝐿 − 𝑎 2 ) + 0 = 0
𝐿
𝑃𝑎 2
𝑀𝐴 𝐿 + 2𝑀𝐵 𝐿 + (𝐿 − 𝑎2 ) = 0 (𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟐)
𝐿

 Solving equation 1 and 2

𝑃𝑏
2 [2𝑀𝐴 𝐿 + 𝑀𝐵 𝐿 + (𝐿2 − 𝑏2 ) = 0]
𝐿
𝑃𝑎
𝑀𝐴 𝐿 + 2𝑀𝐵 𝐿 + (𝐿2 − 𝑎2 ) = 0
𝐿

2𝑃𝑏
4𝑀𝐴 𝐿 + 2𝑀𝐵 𝐿 + (𝐿2 − 𝑏2 ) = 0
𝐿
(−)
𝑃𝑎
[𝑀𝐴 𝐿 + 2𝑀𝐵 𝐿 + (𝐿2 − 𝑎2 ) = 0]
𝐿

2𝑃𝑏 2 𝑃𝑎 2
3𝑀𝐴 𝐿 + 0 + (𝐿 − 𝑏 2 ) − (𝐿 − 𝑎 2 ) = 0
𝐿 𝐿
2𝑃𝑏3 𝑃𝑎3
3𝑀𝐴 𝐿 + 2𝑃𝑏𝐿 − − 𝑃𝑎𝐿 + =0
𝐿 𝐿
2𝑃𝑏3 𝑃𝑎3
+ 𝑃𝑎𝐿 − 2𝑃𝑏𝐿 −
𝑀𝐴 = 𝐿 𝐿
3𝐿
2𝑃𝑏3 𝑃𝑎 2𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑎3
𝑀𝐴 = + − − 2
3𝐿2 3 3 3𝐿
1 2𝑃𝑏3 𝑃𝑎3
𝑀𝐴 = [ 2 + 𝑃𝑎 − 2𝑃𝑏 − 2 ]
3 𝐿 𝐿
2𝑃𝑏3 + 𝑃𝑎𝐿2 − 2𝑃𝑏𝐿2 − 𝑃𝑎3
𝑀𝐴 =
3𝐿2
3𝐿 𝑀𝐴 = 2𝑃𝑏 + 𝑃𝑎(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 − 2𝑃𝑏(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 − 𝑃𝑎3
2 3

3𝐿2 𝑀𝐴 = 2𝑃𝑏3 + 𝑃𝑎(𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2 ) − 2𝑃𝑏(𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2 ) − 𝑃𝑎3

3𝐿2 𝑀𝐴 = 2𝑃𝑏3 + 𝑃𝑎3 + 2𝑃𝑎2 𝑏 + 𝑃𝑎𝑏2 − 2𝑃𝑎2 𝑏 − 4𝑃𝑎𝑏2 − 2𝑃𝑏3 − 𝑃𝑎3

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Structural Theory 2

3𝑃𝑎𝑏2
𝑀𝐴 = −
3𝐿2
𝑷𝒂𝒃𝟐
𝑴𝑨 = − 𝟐
𝑳

 Procedure For Analysis

The following procedure provides a general method for determining the end moments
on beam span using moment distribution.

 Moment Distribution Process:

Assume that all joints at which the moments is the connecting spans must be determined
are initially locked. Then:

1. Determined the moment that is needed to put each joint in equilibrium.

2. Release or “unlock” the joints and distribute in accordance with until DF’s of each
spans the counterbalancing moments into the connecting span at each joint.
3. Carry these moments each span over to its other end by multiplying each moment by
the carry-over factor ½.

By representing this cycle of locking and unlocking the joints, until it will be found that
the moment corrections will diminish since the beam tends to achieve its final deflection shape,
when a small enough value for the corrections is obtained, the process of cycling should be
stopped with no “carry-over” of the last moments. Each column of FEMs, distributed moments
and carry-over moments should be added. If this is done correctly, moment equilibrium at the
joints will be achieved.

Example No. 1

Determine the internal moments at each support of the beam shown below. EI is constant.
(Regular Method)

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Structural Theory 2

Solution:

FEMs:

FEMAB= 0

𝑾𝑳𝟐 𝟐𝟎(𝟏𝟐)𝟐
FEMBC= − 𝟏𝟐
=− 𝟏𝟐
= -240 kN-m

𝑾𝑳𝟐 𝟐𝟎(𝟏𝟐)𝟐
FEMCB= + =+ = +240 kN-m
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐

𝑷𝑳 𝟐𝟓𝟎(𝟏𝟐)
FEMCD= − 𝟖
=− 𝟖
= -250 kN-m

𝑷𝑳 𝟐𝟓𝟎(𝟏𝟐)
FEMDC= + =+ = 250 Kn-m
𝟖 𝟖

Member Stiffness:
𝑰 𝑰 𝟐𝑰
KAB = = = =2
𝑳 𝟏𝟐 𝟐𝟒

𝑰 𝑰 𝟐𝑰
KBC = 𝑳 = 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟐𝟒 = 2

𝑰 𝑰 𝟑𝑰
KCD = = = =3
𝑳 𝟖 𝟐𝟒

Moment Distribution Table:

JOINT A B C D
MEMBER AB BA BC CB CD DC
K 2 2 3
DF 0 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.6 0
FEM 0 0 -240 240 -250 250
Balance 120 120 4 6
COM 60 2 60 3
Balance 0 -1 -1 -24 -36
COM -0.5 -12 -0.5 -18
Balance 6 6 0.2 0.7
COM 3 0.1 3 0.15
Balance -0.05 -0.05 -1.2 -1.8
COM -0.025 -0.6 -0.025 -0.09
Balance 0.3 0.3 0.01 0.015
COM 0.15 0.005 0.15 0.0075
Balance -0.0025 -0.0025 -0.06 -0.09
Σ𝑀 +62.625 +125.2475 -125.2475 +281.575 -281.575 +234.2575

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Structural Theory 2

Example No. 2

Determine the internal moments of the beam shown below. (Modified Method)

FEMs:

𝑊𝐿2 (8)(6)2
FEMAB = − 12
=− 12
= -24 kN-m

𝑊𝐿2 (8)(6)2
FEMBA = + 12
=+ 12
= + 24 Kn-m

𝑃𝐿 (12)(8)
FEMBC = − 8
=− 8
= -12 kN-m

(12)(8)
FEMCB = + 8
= 12 kN-m

Distribution Factor Table:

JOINT MEMBERS MODIFIED Σ𝐾 𝐾

𝐷𝐹 =
STIFFNESS (K) Σ𝐾
BA 3𝐸𝐼 KBA+KBC 0.5
6 EI
B BC 4𝐸𝐼 0.5
8
Moment Distribution Table:

Joint A B C
Member AB BA BC CB
DF 1 0.5 0.5 0
FEM -24 24 -12 12
Balance 24 -6 -6 0
Carry Over -3 12 0 -3
Moment (COM)
Balance 3 -6 -6 0
COM -3 1.5 0 -3
Balance 3 -0.75 -0.75 0
COM -0.375 1.5 0 -0.375
Balance 0.375 -0.75 -0.75 0
Carry Over -0.375 0.1875 0 -0.375
Balance 0.375 -0.09375 -0.09375 0
∑M 0 25.59375 -25.59375 5.25

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Structural Theory 2

Example No. 3

Determine the internal moments of the beam shown below. (Regular Method)

FEMs:

FEMAB = MBA = 0

𝑊𝐿2 (800)(20)2
FEMBC = − 12
=− 12
= -26.67 k-ft

𝑊𝐿2 (800)(20)2
FEMCB = + 12
=+ 12
= +26.67 k-ft

FEMCD = -500(15) = -7.5 k-ft

MEMBER STIFFNESS:
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼
KAB = 𝐿 = 20 = 1 KBC = 𝐿 = 20 = 1

Moment Distribution Table:

JOINT A B C
MEMBER AB BA BC CB CD
K 1 1
DF 0 0.5 0.5 1 0
FEM 0 0 -26.67 26.67 -7.5
Balance 0 13.335 13.335 -19.17
COM 6.6675 0 -9.585 6.6675
Balance 0 4.7925 4.7925 -6.6675
COM 2.39625 0 -3.33375 2.39625
Balance 0 1.666875 1.666875 -2.39625
COM 0.8334375 0 -1.19825 0.8334375
Balance 0 0.5990625 0.5990625 -0.8334375
COM 0.2995312 0 -0.41671875 0.29953125
Balance 0 0.208359375 0.208359375 -0.29953215
COM 0.1041796 0 -0.149765625 0.104179687
Balance 0 0.0748828125 0.0748828125 -0.1041796
Σ𝑀 +10.3 +20.68 -20.68 +7.5 -7.5

9
Structural Theory 2

4. Analyze the beam shown. Compute the internal moments.

𝐼 7𝐼
Span AB: k = 5 = 35 = 7

𝐼 5𝐼
Span BC: k = 7 = 35 = 5

− 50(2)(32)
MFAB = 25
= -36 kN.m

50(3)(22)
MFBA = 25
= 24 kN.m

− 35(2)(32) 70(4)(32)
MFBC = - = -87.143 kN.m
49 49

35(5)(22) 70(3)(42)
MFCB = 49
+ 49
= 82.875 kN.m

 Using Regular Method:

Joint A B C D
k 7 5
7 5
DF 1 12 12 1
FEM -36 24 -87.14 82.86 -80
Bal 36 36.83 26.31 -2.86
COM 18.42 18 -1.43 13.16
Bal -18.42 -9.67 -6.9 -13.16
COM -4.84 -9.21 -6.58 -3.45
Bal 4.84 9.21 6.58 3.45
COM 4.61 2.42 1.73 3.29
Bal -4.61 -2.42 -1.73 -3.29
COM -1.21 -2.3 -1.64 -0.87
Bal 1.21 2.3 1.64 0.87
TOTAL 0 69.16 -69.16 80 -80

MA = 0
MB = -69.16 kN.m
MC = -80 kN.m

10
Structural Theory 2

 Stiffness-Factor Modification

In this case, follow the moment distribution process of the regular method but just
modify the stiffness factor of a particular beam span by multiplying ¾ of the k or the member
pin supported at far end only.

Example 5. (Problem in example 4)

Using Modified Stiffness Method:

Joint A B C D
k’ 5.25 3.75
5.25 3.75
DF 1 9 9 1
FEM -36 24 -87.14 82.86 -80
Bal 36 36.83 26.31 -2.86
COM ---- 18 -1.43 ----
Bal ---- -9.67 -6.90 ----
TOTAL 0 69.16 -69.16 80 -80

Example 6.

Solve the beam shown with 10KN concentrated load at the point D. Solve the internal
moments at the supports.E = 200,000 MPa I = 190x106 mm4

11
Structural Theory 2

𝐼 2𝐼
Span AB: k = 6 = 12 = 2

𝐼 3𝐼
Span BC: k = = =3
4 12

−6(62)
MFAB = 30
= -7.2 kN.m

6(62)
MFBA = 20
= 10.8 kN.m

− 4(42) 6(200000)(190𝑥106) 15 1
MFBC = 12
+ 4000
(4000)(106) = 208.417 kN.m

4(42) 6(200000)(190𝑥106) 15 1
MFBC = 12
+ 4000
(4000)(106) = 219.083 kN.m

Using Regular Method:

Joint A B C D
k 2 3
DF 1 0.4 0.6 1
FEM -7.20 10.8 208.42 219.08 -20
- -
Bal 7.20 -87.69 131.53 199.08
COM -43.85 3.60 -99.54 -65.77
Bal 43.85 38.38 57.56 65.77
COM 19.19 21.92 32.88 28.78
Bal -19.19 -21.92 -32.88 -28.78
COM -10.96 -9.60 -14.39 -16.44
Bal 10.96 9.60 14.39 16.44
TOTAL 0 -34.91 34.91 20 -20

MA = 0

MB = 34.91 kN.m

MC = -20 kN.m

12
Structural Theory 2

Using Modified Stiffness Method:

Joint A B C D
k’ 1.50 2.25
DF ---- 0.4 0.6 ----
FEM -7.20 10.8 208.42 219.08 -20
- -
Bal 7.20 -87.69 131.53 199.08
COM ---- 3.60 -99.54 ----
Bal ---- 38.38 57.56 ----
TOTAL 0 -34.91 34.91 20 -20

Exercises:

Plate No. 9

Analyze the beam shown. EI is constant. Compute the moments at the support
using
a) Regular Method.
b) Modified Stiffness Method.
1.

2.

E = 29 x 103 ksi

13
Structural Theory 2

3. EI is constant.

4.

5. From the give figure below, determine moment at B. I is constant.

6. A continuous beam is fixed at A and supported by rollers at B. With its loadings shown,
find MA when the support at B settles by 10 mm. IAB=90(106 )mm4 ;

IBC = 80(106)mm4 ; E = 200,00MPa.

7. A horizontal beam ABC is simply supported at both ends at A and C And a roller at the
center of the beam at B. It carries a uniform load of 20 KN/m. The center support at B
settles 12 mm. E= 200,00. Find moment B.

14
Structural Theory 2

References:

Books

 Aslam Kassimali, STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

 Hibbeler ; STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
 Matias Arreola, STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
 V. Besavilla Jr., STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Suggested Links:

 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]

15
Structural Theory 2

Lesson 8
Virtual Work Method on Beams and Frames

Learning Objectives:

At the end of lesson, the students should be able to:

1. determine the moment equations for the beams and frames due to external loads;
2. determine the moment equations for the beams and frames due to unit load and unit
moment;
3. follow the procedure in determining the deflection and angle of rotation using virtual
work method for beams and frames;
4. organize the results of the analysis carefully and
5. analyze the deflection and angle of rotation of beams and frames using the virtual work
method.

Time frame: 5 hours

Introduction:

The principle of Virtual Work was once developed by John Bernoulli in 1717 and is
sometimes referred to as the unit load method. It provides a general means of obtaining the
displacement and slope at a specific point on a structure, be it a Beam, Frame, or Truss.

The method of Virtual Work is a technique used to determine slope (θ) and deflection
(Δ) of a structure subjected to loading. In beams, the slope and deflection at a given point can
be obtained by analyzing the “real system”, then subsequently creating a “virtual system” using
a unit load or moment at the point of interest. By examining both the real and the virtual
systems, and applying the suitable Virtual Work Equation, a value for deflection or slope at a
point can be obtained.

Method of Virtual Work: Beams and Frames

Displacement Formula
𝐿
𝑚𝑀
1∙∆= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 𝐸𝐼
Slope Formula
𝐿
𝑚𝜃 𝑀
1∙𝜃 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 𝐸𝐼
where:
1 = external virtual unit load acting on the beam or frame in the direction of ∆.
m = (𝑚𝜃 ) internal virtual moment in the beam or frame, expressed as a function of x
and caused by the external virtual unit load.
∆ = external displacement of the point caused by the real loads acting on the beam or
frame.
M = internal moment in the beam or frame, expressed as a function of x and caused
by the real loads.
E = modulus of elasticity of the material.
I = moment of inertia of cross-sectional area, computed about the neutral axis.

1
Structural Theory 2

Procedure of Analysis

For Virtual Moments m or 𝒎𝜽

 Place a unit load on the beam or frame at the point and in the direction of the desired
displacement.

 If the slope is to be determined, place a unit couple moment at the point.

 Establish appropriate x coordinates that are valid within regions of the beam or frame
where there is no discontinuity of real or virtual load.

 With the virtual load in place, and all the real loads removed from the beam or frame,
calculate the internal moment m or as a function of each x coordinate.

 Assume m or acts in the conventional positive direction.

For Real Moments, M

 Using the same x coordinates as those established for m or 𝑚𝑜 determine the internal
moments M caused only by the real loads.

 Since m or was assumed to act in the conventional positive direction, it is important

that positive M acts in this same direction. This is necessary since positive or
negative internal work depends upon the directional sense of load (defined by ±𝒎 or
±𝒎𝜽 ) and displacement (defined by ±𝑴 𝒅𝒙/𝑬𝑰).

Virtual-Work Equation

 Apply the equation of virtual work to determine the desired displacement ∆ or 𝜃

rotation It is important to retain the algebraic sign of each integral calculated within its
specified region.

 If the algebraic sum of all the integrals for the entire beam or frame is positive, ∆ or 𝜃
is in the same direction as the virtual unit load or unit couple moment, respectively. If
a negative value results, the direction of ∆ or 𝜃 is opposite to that of the unit load or
unit couple moment.

Examples:

1. Determine the displacement at point C. Use E = 29(10 3) ksi, I = 800 in4.

2
Structural Theory 2

Solution:

Solving for M:

∑Fy = 0 (↑+)

Ay ̶ 6 = 0

Ay = 6k

∑MA = 0 ( +)

-MA + 12 + 6(6) = 0

MA = [Link]

@ Segment AB

∑MX = 0 ( +)

-48 + 6(x) + Mx = 0

MX = 48 – 6x

@ Segment BC

∑MX = 0 ( +)

-48 + 6(x) – 6(6-x) + Mx = 0

Mx = 48 - 6x + 6(x-6)

Mx = 12

Solving for m:

∑Fy = 0 (↑+)

Ay – 1 = 0

Ay = 1k

∑MA = 0 ( +)

MA + 1(12) = 0

3
Structural Theory 2

MA = [Link]

@ Segment AB = Segment BC

∑MX = 0 ( +)

-12 + Mx + 1(x) = 0

Mx = 12 – x

Segment m M Limits Mm
AB 12 – x 48 – 6x 0–6 576–120+6x2
BC 12 – x 12 6 – 12 144 – 12x

𝐿 𝑚𝑀
1. ΔC = ∫0 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼

1 6 1 12
1. ΔC =
𝐸𝐼
∫0 (576 − 120 + 6𝑥 2 )dx + 𝐸𝐼 ∫6 (144 − 12𝑥)dx

1
1. ΔC = 𝐸𝐼 (1994)

𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟒𝑲𝟐 .𝒇𝒕𝟐
ΔC = 𝑲 𝟏𝒇𝒕 𝟐
𝟐𝟗(𝟏𝟎𝟑 ) 𝟐(𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒊𝒏𝟒 )( ) (𝟏𝑲)
𝒊𝒏 𝟏𝟐𝒊𝒏

𝟏𝟐 𝒊𝒏
ΔC = 0.012 ft x 𝟏 𝒇𝒕

ΔC = 0.145 in (↓)

2. Determine the displacement of point B of the steel beam. Take E = 200 GPa , I = 500 (106)
mm4.

Solving for M: (fig.a) Solving for m: (fig.b)

∑MX = 0 ( +) ∑MX = 0 ( +)
𝑋 𝑋
Mx + 12 (12)(12) = 0 Mx = 1 (x) = 0

4
Structural Theory 2

Mx = - 6x2

Mx = -x

Figures a & b

Segment m M Limits mM
AB -x - 6x2 0 - 10 6x3

𝐿 𝑚𝑀
1. ΔB = ∫0 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼

1 10
1. ΔB = EI ∫1 6𝑥 3 dx

1
ΔB = (15000)
EI

15000 𝐾𝑁2 .𝑚3

ΔB = 𝐾𝑁 1𝑚4
200(106 ) 2 (500(106)𝑚𝑚4 )( )(1𝐾𝑁)
𝑚 10004 𝑚𝑚4

ΔB = 0.15 m (↓)

3. Determine the horizontal displacement of point C on the frame shown. Take E = 29(103) ksi,
I = 600 in4 and for both members.

5
Structural Theory 2

6
Structural Theory 2

Exercises:

Plate 8

a. (Beams)

Direction: Solve the following problems with complete solutions.

1. Determine the slope and

displacement at point A. EI is
constant.

2. Determine the displacement of point

B of the steel beam.
Take E = 200 GPa,
I = 500 (106) mm4.

3. Determine the displacement at

point C. Use E = 29(103) ksi,
I = 800 in4.

4. Determine the displacement at

point C. EI is constant.

5. Determine the slope and

displacement at point A. EI is
constant.

7
Structural Theory 2

b. (Frames)

Problems

1. Determine the vertical deflection at the

rocker support D. EI is constant.

2. The L-shaped frame is made from two

segments, each of length L and flexural
stiffness EI. If it is subjected to the
uniform distributed load, determine the
horizontal displacement of the end C.

3. Determine the vertical displacement at

point B of problem number 2.

4. Determine the horizontal displacement of

point C. EI is constant.

5. Determine the vertical deflection at C.

The cross-sectional area and moment of
inertia of each segment is shown in the
figure. Take E = 200 GPa. Assume A is
a fixed support.

8
Structural Theory 2

References:
 Matias A. Areola , Theory of Structures
 Aslam Kassimali , Structural Analysis 2nd Edition
 R.C. Hibbeler , Structural Analysis 6th Edition

Note taking-1F
 You tube links:

• [Link]
• [Link]
• [Link]

9
 Lesson 9
Moment Distribution Method
Shear and Moment Diagrams, Deflection for Beams and Frames

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. determine the moments and reactions at the supports/joints considering deflection using
the moment distribution method;
2. draw the shear and moment diagrams of continuous beams and
3. apply the method to analyze the shear and moment of frames with and without side sway.

Time frame: 6 hours

Introduction:
➢ Shear and Moment Diagrams
Shear and bending moment diagrams are analytical methods used to help
conduct structural design by evaluating the importance of shear strength and bending
moment of a structural element such as a beam at a given point in combination with
structural analysis.
The bending moment is the reaction caused in a structural element when the
element causing the element to bend is subjected by an external force or moment. The
beam is the most common or simplest structural element subjected to bending
moments.
• Internal Moment and Reactions:

Example:

1. Determine the internal moments and the reaction at A, B, C, and D of the beam
shown below.

FEMAB= 0
𝑃𝐿 𝟐𝟎𝟎(𝟖)
FEMBC= − =− = -200 kN-m
8 𝟖

𝑃𝐿 200(8)
FEMCB= + =+ = +200 Kn-m
8 8

𝑊𝐿2 (24)(8)2
FEMCD= − =− = -128 Kn-m
12 12

𝑊𝐿2 (24)(8)2
FEMDC= + =+ = +128 kN-m
12 12

Distribution Factor Table:

1
 JOINT MEMBERS MODIFIED Σ𝐾 𝐾
𝐷𝐹 =
STIFFNESS (K) Σ𝐾
BA 4𝐸𝐼 KBA+KBC 4/7
6 7𝐸𝐼
=
B BC 4𝐸𝐼 6 3/7
8
CB 4𝐸𝐼 KCB+KCD 0.5
8 𝐸𝐼
C CD 4𝐸𝐼 1 0.5
8

Moment Distribution Table:

JOINT A B C D
MEMBER AB BA BC CB CD DC
DF 0 4/7 3/7 0.5 0.5 0
FEM 0 0 -200 200 -128 128
BALANCE 114.286 85.714 -36 -36
CARRY OVER 57.143 -18 42.857 -18
BALANCE 0 10.286 7.714 -21.429 -21.428
CARRY OVER 5.143 -10.714 3.857 -10.714
BALANCE 6.1223 4.5917 -1.929 -1.928
CARRY OVER 3.0612 -0.964 2.296 -0.964
BALANCE 0.551 0.413 -1.148 -1.148
CARRY OVER 0.2755 -0.574 0.2066 -0.574
BALANCE 0.328 0.246 -0.1033 -0.1033
CARRY OVER 0.164 -0.05165 0.123 -0.05165
BALANCE 0.0295 0.0221 -0.0615 -0.0615
Σ𝑀 +65.7867 +131.6028 -131.6028 +188.6688 -188.6688 +97.696

MAB= 65.7867 kN-m Ans.

MBA= 131.6028 kN-m Ans.
MBC= -131.6028 kN-m Ans.
MCB= 188.6688 kN-m Ans.
MCD= -188.6688 kN-m Ans.
MDC= 97.696 kN-m Ans.

∑MA = 0 + ∑MB2 = 0 +
∑MC2 = 0 +
-RC1 (8)+188.6688+200(4)-
-6RB1+65.7867+131.6028=0 131.6028=0 -RD(8)-97.696+(24)(8)(4)-
RB1= 32.898 kN 188.6688=0
RC1 = 107.13 kN
∑Fy = 0 + RD = 60.2 kN Ans.
∑Fy =0 +
RA + RB1 = 0 ∑Fy = 0 +
RB2 + RC1 – 200 = 0
RA = -32.898kN Ans. RC2+RD-24(8)=0
RB2 = 92.87 kN
RC2 = 131.8 kN
RB = 32.898 + 92.87
RC = 107.13+131.8 kN
RB = 125.768kN Ans.
RC = 238.93 kN Ans.

2
Structural Theory 2

➢ Moment Distribution Method Considering Deflection

• Fixed –end Moment due to Deflection:

Fully restrained beam with one support setting

A
Δ

End moments

MA = - (6EI∆)/L2

MB = (6EI∆)/L2

Example:

1. A horizontal beam ABC is simply supported at both ends at A and C And a roller
at the center of the beam at B. It carries a uniform load of 20 KN/m. The center
support at B settles 12 mm. E= 200,00. Find moment B.

FEM:

w𝐿2 6EIΔ −20(52) 6(200000)(80)(12)(106 )

𝑀𝐴𝐵 == − + = − = 4.41 KN. m
12 𝐿2 12 (50002 )106

3
Structural Theory 2

w𝐿2 6EIΔ 20(52 ) 6(200000)(80)(12)(106 )

𝑀𝐵𝐴 = + = + = 87.75 KN. m
12 𝐿2 12 (50002)106

w𝐿2 6EIΔ −20(42 ) 6(200000)(80)(12)(106)

𝑀𝐵𝐶 = − + = + = 45.33 KN. m
12 𝐿2 12 (40002 )106

w𝐿2 6EIΔ 20(42) 6(200000)(80)(12)(106 )

𝑀𝐶𝐵 = + = + = 98.67 KN. m
12 𝐿2 12 (40002 )106

I
𝐾=
𝐿
Joint A B C
6
80(10 ) K 16000 20000
Span AB:
5000
= 16000
DF 1 0.44 0.56 1
80(106 )
BC:
4000
= 20000 FEM 4.41 87.75 45.33 98.67
Bal. -4.41 -58.56 -74.52 -98.67
𝐷𝐹:
COM -29.28 -2.205 -49.335 -37.26
AB=0 Bal. 29.28 22.68 28.26 37.26

BA=
16000
= 0.44 COM 11.34 14.64 18.63 14.43
16000+20000
Bal. -11.34 14.64 18.63 -14.43
20000
BC:
16000+20000
= 0.56 FINAL 0 49.665 -49.665 0

CB=1

2. Solve the beam shown. Solve the internal moments at the supports.

E = 200,000 MPa I=
190x106 mm4

𝐼 2𝐼
Span AB: k = = =2
6 12

𝐼 3𝐼
Span BC: k = = =3
4 12

−6(62)
MFAB = = -7.2 kN.m
30

6(62)
MFBA = = 10.8 kN.m
20

− 4(42) 6(200000)(190𝑥106) 15 1
MFBC = + ( )( ) = 208.417 kN.m
12 4000 4000 106

4
Structural Theory 2

4(42) 6(200000)(190𝑥106) 15 1
MFBC = + ( )( ) = 219.083 kN.m
12 4000 4000 106

Using Regular Method:

Joint A B C D
k 2 3
DF 1 0.4 0.6 1
FEM -7.20 10.8 208.42 219.08 -20
Bal 7.20 -87.69 -131.53 -199.08
COM -43.85 3.60 -99.54 -65.77
Bal 43.85 38.38 57.56 65.77
COM 19.19 21.92 32.88 28.78
Bal -19.19 -21.92 -32.88 -28.78
COM -10.96 -9.60 -14.39 -16.44
Bal 10.96 9.60 14.39 16.44
TOTAL 0 -34.91 34.91 20 -20
MA = 0
MB = 34.91 kN.m
MC = -20 kN.

Using Modified Stiffness Method:

Joint A B C D
k’ 1.50 2.25
DF ---- 0.4 0.6 ----
FEM -7.20 10.8 208.42 219.08 -20
Bal 7.20 -87.69 -131.53 -199.08
COM ---- 3.60 -99.54 ----
Bal ---- 38.38 57.56 ----
TOTAL 0 -34.91 34.91 20 -20

➢ Frames:

Analysis of rigid frames by moment-distribution method is very similar to that of

continuous beams. As pointed out earlier, in the case of continuous beams, at a joint only two
members meet, where as in case of rigid frames two or more than two members meet at a joint.
At such joints where more than two members meet, the unbalanced moment at the beginning
of each cycle is the algebraic sum of fixed end beam moments (in the first cycle) or the carry
over moments (in the subsequent cycles) of the beam meeting at C. The unbalanced moment
is distributed to members and according to their distribution factors. Few examples are solved
to explain procedure.

• Moment Distribution Method for Frames without Side sway

5
Structural Theory 2

Procedure:
The analysis of solving Moment Distribution Method for frames without side sway is
similar to the case of continuous beam.
o Calculate the stiffness factors for each member, (K).
o Calculate distribution factor (DF) at both ends of each member.
o Determine carry-over factors (CO) at both ends of each member.
o Assume all joints are fixed and calculate fixed-end moments (FEM) for each member.
o Balance pinned (to zero) and distribute half the moment to opposite end.
o Distribute the unbalanced moments at all other joints to each adjacent member based
on the distribution factor.
o Carryover the distributed moments to the opposite ends of each member using the
Carry over factors.
o Repeat steps 6 and 7 until moment imbalance at each joint approach zero.

Example:

1. Compute the moment at A and C using moment-distribution method.

Solution:
𝐼
𝐾𝐴𝐵 =
6
𝐼 3 𝐼
𝐾𝐴𝐵 = ( ) =
9 4 12
𝐼
𝐷𝐹𝐶𝐴 = 6 = 0.667
𝐼 𝐼
+
6 12
𝐼
𝐷𝐹𝐶𝐴 = 6 = 0.333
𝐼 𝐼
+
12 6
−75(6)
𝐹𝐸𝑀𝐴𝐶 = = −56.25 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
8

6
Structural Theory 2

75(6)
𝐹𝐸𝑀𝐴𝐶 = = 56.25 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
8
−25(92 )
𝐹𝐸𝑀𝐴𝐶 = = −168.75 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
12
2
25(9 )
𝐹𝐸𝑀𝐴𝐶 = = 168.75 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
12
Joint A C D
DF 0 0.667 0.333 1.0
FEM -56.25 56.25 -168.75 168.75
Bal 0 75.04 37.46 -168.75
COM 37.52 0 -84.38 0
Bal 0 56.28 28.10 0
COM 28.14 0 0 0
Bal 0 0 0 0
∑𝑀 9.41 187.57 -187.57 0

𝑴𝑨 = 𝟗. 𝟒𝟏 𝑲𝑵. 𝒎 𝑨𝒏𝒔.
𝑴𝑪 = −𝟏𝟖𝟕. 𝟓𝟕 𝑲𝑵. 𝒎 𝑨𝒏𝒔.

3. Determine the fixed end moment of the frame shown. (No sideways)

𝐼 𝑃𝐿 (75)(10)
KAB = =1 FEMAB = 0 FEMBC = − =− = -93.75 KN-m FEMCD = 0
10 8 8

2𝐼
KBC = =2 FEMBA = 0 FEMCB = 93.75 KN-m FEMDC = 0
10

𝐼
KCD = =1
10

7
Structural Theory 2

JOINT A B C D
K 1 2 1
DF 0 1/3 2/3 2/3 1/3 0
FEM 0 0 -93.75 93.75 0 0
BAL 0 31.25 62.5 -62.5 -31.25 0
COM 15.625 0 -31.25 31.25 0 -15.625
BAL 0 10.417 20.833 -20.833 -10.417 0
COM 5.209 0 -10.417 10.417 0 -5.209
BAL 0 3.472 6.945 -6.945 -3.72 0
COM 1.736 0 -3.472 3.472 0 -1.736
BAL 0 1.157 2.315 -2.315 -1.157 0
COM 0.579 0 -1.157 1.157 0 -0.579
BAL 0 0.385 0.772 -0.772 -0.385 0
COM 0.193 0 -0.386 0.386 0 -0.193
BAL 0 0.129 0.257 -0.257 -0.129 0
TOTAL 23.342 46.81 -46.81 46.81 -46.81 -23.342

MAB = 23.342 KN-m

MBC = -46.81 KN-m

MCD = -46.81 KN-m

MDC = -23.342 KN-m

4. Calculate reactions and beam end moments for the rigid frame shown in Fig. 20.2a. Draw
bending moment diagram for the frame. Assume EIto be constant for all the members.

8
Structural Theory 2

Solution:
In the first step, calculate fixed end moments.

(1)

Also, the fixed end moment acting at B on BA is clockwise.

9
Structural Theory 2

In the next step calculate stiffness and distribution factors.

At joint B: (2)

All the calculations are shown in the figure. Please note that cantilever member does
not have any restraining effect on the joint B from rotation. In addition its stiffness factor is zero.
Hence unbalanced moment is distributed between members and BC and BD only.

In this problem the moment-distribution method is completed in only one cycle, as

equilibrium of only one joint need to be considered.

10
Structural Theory 2

• Moment Distribution Method For Frames With Side sway

o The moment distribution method is a structural analysis method used to analyze
continuous beams and frames.
o Frames with sidesway are frames whose joints may undergo both rotation and
translation when subjected to external loads.
o The moment distribution method resembles very similarly the slope-deflection
method but still contains its own trait. The moment distribution method
differentiates itself by solving equilibrium of moments of joints in an iterative
style instead of the traditional simultaneous method.

Sidesway

Sidesway is any sideward translation of the top of a column or beam relative to its base.
This translation can be linked to translation in the horizontal or vertical direction. One equation
for calculating if sidesway is possible in a frame is given by:

Where:
𝑆𝑆 = number of sidesway degrees of freedom
j = number of joints
f = number of fixed supports
h = number of hinged supports
r = number of roller supports
m = number of members

If 𝑆𝑆 is equal to zero, sidesway is not possible. However, a 𝑆𝑆 value greater than zero may
mean a frame is without sidesway if the frame and loading are symmetric.

Important Terms
• Static – refers to a body at rest under equilibrium conditions and all the forces that act
on it.
• Sign Convention – In order to understand moment-distribution method, a sign
convention must be adopted for positive and negative moment and shear forces.
o The positive sign convention we will use for moment-distribution method will
consist of shear acting upwards and clockwise moments.
o The negative sign convention we will use will consist of shear acting downwards
and counter-clockwise moments.
• End Moments – refers to the moment at the end of a beam or portion of a frame. Our
sign convention states that end moments are positive when they act in a clockwise
direction.
• Balanced Moments – When using the moment distribution method, balanced
moments must be used after removing the original support conditions in order to
properly analyze a beam. Balancing a moment requires multiplying the fixed end
moment of a member by the distribution factor.
• Superposition – a method of calculating the deflection of a beam under multiple
loadings by calculating the deflection caused by the individual loads and adding the
individual results.
• Fixed End Moments – are the moments at the ends of beam that is fixed at both ends.

11
Structural Theory 2

• Bending Stiffness – is the bending moment required to rotate the end of a beam by 1
radian. When the moment of inertia of the frame is constant, relative bending stiffness
at the end of a member can be used.

For member fixed at the other end

4𝐸𝐼
𝐾=
𝐿
̅=𝐼
𝐾
𝐿
For member hinged at the other end
3𝐸𝐼
𝐾=
𝐿
̅=3
𝐾
4
Note: K= bending stiffness
̅ = relative bending stiffness
K

• Carryover Factor (COF) – is the relationship between the carryover moment and the
applied moment.
1
For member fixed at the other end, 𝐶𝑂𝐹 =
2
For member hinged at the other end, 𝐶𝑂𝐹 = 0

• Distribution Factors – are used to distribute the stress from an applied moment at a
𝐾
joint to the members connected to that joint, 𝐷𝐹 = ∑
𝐾

Procedure:

1. Determine if the frame is subjected to sidesway.

(Determine the Degrees of Freedom of the frame).

2. Superimpose the frame into separate systems: One system (a) will be externally loaded
with the forces on the primary beam, but with a restraint added at the side of the degree
of Freedom to restrain sidesway. The second system (b) will not be restrained, but will
have a force R acting opposite to the restraint in the previous system. System (b) will
not be loaded externally.
3. Draw free body diagrams of system (a), separating the frame into individual beams.
Draw the beams as if they had fixed-fixed end conditions and then determine their
Fixed-End Moments.
4. To determine how the FEMs will be distributed across the frame, the bending stiffness
for each segment of the frame must be known.
5. The distribution factor for when these end conditions are released must be calculated
to know how the moments are distributed over the member.
6. The next important step is to account for Carry Over Moments that are distributed to
the far end of a member.
7. At point which the actual moments are found, basic static equilibrium can be used to
find the support reactions of the frame.
8. Draw the FBD of system (b) and be sure to include a force R in opposite direction of
the added restrain.
9. Express the FEMs of the frame in terms of E, I, and ∆.

12
 Structural Theory 2

10. Analyze this system using the Moment-Distribution Method to find the support
moments.
11. Once R’ is known, the final moments of the original frame can be calculated using
superposition.
𝑅
𝑀𝑁 = 𝑀𝑁𝑂 + (𝑀𝑁𝑂′ )
𝑅′

Example:

1. Determine the moments of each joint of the

frame shown. The moment of inertia of each
member is indicated in the figure.

Solution:

Bending stiffness:
4𝐸𝐼 4(2000)𝐸 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑬 𝟑
𝐾𝐵𝐴 = 𝐾𝐴𝐵 = = = 𝒊𝒏
𝐿 10(12) 𝟑
4𝐸𝐼 4(1500)𝐸 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝑬 𝟑
𝐾𝐵𝐶 = 𝐾𝐶𝐵 = = = 𝒊𝒏
𝐿 12(12) 𝟑

13
Structural Theory 2

3𝐸𝐼 3(2500)𝐸 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝑬 𝟑

𝐾𝐶𝐷 = 𝐾𝐷𝐶 = = = 𝒊𝒏
𝐿 15(12) 𝟑

∑ 𝐾𝐵 = 𝐾𝐵𝐴 + 𝐾𝐵𝐶

200𝐸 125𝐸 𝟑𝟐𝟓𝑬 𝟑

∑ 𝐾𝐵 = + = 𝒊𝒏
3 3 𝟑
∑ 𝐾𝐶 = 𝐾𝐶𝐵 + 𝐾𝐶𝐷
125𝐸 125𝐸 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝑬 𝟑
∑ 𝐾𝐶 = + = 𝒊𝒏
3 3 𝟑

Distribution factor: 𝐷𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 0 𝐷𝐹𝐶𝐷 = 1

200𝐸 125𝐸
𝐾 𝐾
𝐷𝐹𝐵𝐴 = ∑ 𝐵𝐴 = 3
325𝐸 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟓 𝐷𝐹𝐵𝐶 = ∑ 𝐵𝐶 = 3
325𝐸 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟓
𝐾𝐵 𝐾𝐵
3 3

125𝐸 125𝐸
𝐾𝐶𝐵 3 𝐾𝐶𝐷 3
𝐷𝐹𝐶𝐵 = ∑ 𝐾𝐶
= 250𝐸 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝐷𝐹𝐶𝐷 = ∑ 𝐾𝐶
= 250𝐸 = 𝟎. 𝟓
3 3

Fixed-End Moments:

𝜔𝐿2 2(12)2
𝐹𝐸𝑀𝐵𝐶 = − =− = −𝟐𝟒𝒌 − 𝒇𝒕
12 12

𝜔𝐿2 2(12)2
𝐹𝐸𝑀𝐶𝐵 = = = 𝟐𝟒𝒌 − 𝒇𝒕
12 12

14
Structural Theory 2

JOINT A B C D

MEMBER AB BA BC CB CD DC

DF 0 0.615 0.385 0.5 0.5 1

FEM -24 24

Bal 14.76 9.24 -12 -12

COM 7.38 -6 4.62

Bal 3.69 2.31 -2.31 -2.31

COM 1.84 -1.16 1.16

Bal 0.713 0.447 -0.58 -0.58

COM 0.357 -0.29 0.224

Bal 0.18 0.11 -0.11 -0.11

∑M 9.58 19.34 -19.34 15 -15 0

∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0(+↷) ∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0(+↷)

19.34 + 9.58 + 𝐴𝑋 = 0 − 15 + 15𝐷𝑋 = 0

𝑨𝑿 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟗𝟐 𝒌 → 𝑫𝑿 = 𝟏 𝒌 ←

15
Structural Theory 2

∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0(+⟶)

2.89 − 1 − 𝑅 = 0

𝑹 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟗 𝒌 ⟵

FEM

6𝐸𝐼∆ 100(10)2 𝟓
𝐹𝐸𝑀𝐴𝐵 = 𝐹𝐸𝑀𝐵𝐴 = = −𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒌 − 𝒇𝒕 ∆= − =−
𝐿2 6𝐸(2000) 𝟔𝑬
3𝐸𝐼∆
𝐹𝐸𝑀𝐶𝐷 =
𝐿2
5
3𝐸(2500)(− )
6𝐸
𝐹𝐸𝑀𝐶𝐷 = = −𝟐𝟕. 𝟕𝟖 𝒌 − 𝒇𝒕
152

16
Structural Theory 2

JOINT A B C D

MEMBER AB BA BC CB CD DC

DF 0 0.615 0.385 0.5 0.5 1

FEM -100 -100 -27.78

Bal 61.5 38.5 13.89 13.89

COM 30.75 6.94 19.25

Bal -4.27 -2.67 -9.625 -9.625

COM -2.14 -4.81 -1.34

Bal 2.96 1.85 0.67 0.67

COM 1.48 0.33 0.92

Bal -0.20 -0.13 -0.46 -0.46

∑M -69.91 -40.01 40.01 23.31 -23.31 0

∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0(+↷) ∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0(+↷)
−40.01 − 69.91 + 𝐴′𝑋 = 0 − 23.31 + 15𝐷′𝑋 = 0
𝑨′𝑿 = 𝟏𝟏 𝒌 ← 𝑫′𝑿 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟓 𝒌 ←

17
Structural Theory 2

∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0(+⟶)
−11 − 1.55 + 𝑅 = 0
𝑹 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝟓 𝒌 →
𝑅
𝑀𝑁 = 𝑀𝑁𝑂 + (𝑀𝑁𝑂′ )
𝑅′

1.89
𝑀𝐴𝐵 = 9.58 + (−69.91)
= 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝟕 𝒌 − 𝒇𝒕 ↶
12.55
1.89
𝑀𝐵𝐴 = 19.34 + (−40.01) = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟑 𝒌 − 𝒇𝒕 ↷
12.55
1.89
𝑀𝐵𝐶 = −19.34 + (40.01) = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟑 𝒌 − 𝒇𝒕 ↶
12.55
1.89
𝑀𝐶𝐵 = 15 + (23.31) = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟓𝟏𝒌 − 𝒇𝒕 ↷
12.55
1.89
𝑀𝐶𝐷 = −15 + (−23.31) = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟓𝟏𝒌 − 𝒇𝒕 ↶
12.55

2. Determine the moments at each joint of the frame shown. EI is constant.

Solution:

4𝐸𝐼 4𝐸𝐼
KAB = KBA = KBC = KCB = KDC = KCD = =
𝐿 5
4𝐸𝐼 4𝐸𝐼 8𝐸𝐼
∑ 𝐾𝐵 = ∑ 𝐾𝐶 = + =
5 5 5

DFAB = DFDC = 0

18
Structural Theory 2

𝐾
DFBC = DFCB = DFCD = ∑ 𝐵𝐶 = 0.5
𝐾𝐵

Solving for the Fixed End Moment:

𝑃𝑎𝑏 2
𝐹𝐸𝑀𝐵𝐶 = −
𝐿2
16(1)(42 )
𝐹𝐸𝑀𝐵𝐶 = −
52
𝐹𝐸𝑀𝐵𝐶 = −𝟏𝟎. 𝟐𝟒 𝒌𝑵 − 𝒎
𝑃𝑎𝑏 2
𝐹𝐸𝑀𝐶𝐵 =
𝐿2
16(4)(12 )
𝐹𝐸𝑀𝐶𝐵 = 𝐹𝐸𝑀𝐶𝐵 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟔 𝒌𝑵 − 𝒎
52

JOINT A B C D

MEMBER AB BA BC CB CD DC

DF 0 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0

FEM -10.24 2.56

Bal 5.12 5.12 -1.28 -1.28

COM 2.56 -0.64 2.56 -0.64

Bal 0.32 0.32 -1.28 -1.28

COM 0.16 -0.64 0.16 -0.64

Bal 0.32 0.32 -0.08 -0.08

COM 0.16 -0.004 0.16 -0.04

19
Structural Theory 2

Bal 0.02 0.002 -0.08 -0.08

∑M 2.88 5.78 -5.78 2.72 -2.72 -1.32

∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0(+↷) ∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0(+↷)

5.78 + 2.88 − 5𝐴𝑋 = 0 −2.72 − 1.32 + 5𝐷𝑋 = 0

𝑨𝑿 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟑 𝒌𝑵 ⟶ 𝑫𝑿 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏 𝒌𝑵 ⟵

∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0(+⟶)
𝐴𝑋 − 𝐷𝑋 − 𝑅 = 0
R= 0.92 kN ⃪

20
Structural Theory 2

Fixed-End Moments:
𝐹𝐸𝑀𝐴𝐵 = 𝐹𝐸𝑀𝐵𝐴 = −100 𝑘𝑁 ∙ 𝑚

𝐹𝐸𝑀𝐶𝐷 = 𝐹𝐸𝑀𝐷𝐶 = −100 𝑘𝑁 ∙ 𝑚

JOINT A B C D

MEMBER AB BA BC CB CD DC

DF 0 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0

FEM -100 -100 -100 -100

Bal 50 50 50 50

COM 25 25 25 25
Bal -12.5 -12.5 -12.5 -12.5
COM -6.25 -6.25 -6.25 -6.25

Bal 3.125 3.125 3.125 3.125

COM 1.56 1.56 1.56 1.56
Bal -0.78 -0.78 -0.78 -0.78
COM -0.39 -0.39 -0.39 -0.39
Bal 0.195 0.195 0.195 0.195
∑M -80 -60 60 60 -60 -80

21
Structural Theory 2

∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0(+↷) ∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0(+↷)
−60 − 80 + 5𝐴′𝑋 = 0 − 60 − 80 + 5𝐷 ′𝑋 = 0
𝑨′𝑿 = 𝟐𝟖 𝒌𝑵 ⟵ 𝑫′𝑿 = 𝟐𝟖 𝒌𝑵 ⟵

+
∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0 ( )
⟶
−𝐴′𝑋 − 𝐷′𝑋 + 𝑅 ′ = 0
𝑹′ = 𝟓𝟔 𝒌𝑵 →

𝑅
𝑀𝑁 = 𝑀𝑁𝑂 + (𝑀 )
𝑅′ 0.92𝑁𝑂′
𝑀𝐴𝐵 = 2.88 + (−80) = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟕 𝒌𝑵 − 𝒎 ↷
56
0.92
𝑀𝐵𝐴 = 5.78 + (−60) = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟗 𝒌𝑵 − 𝒎 ↷
56
0.92
𝑀𝐵𝐶 = −5.78 + (60) = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟗 𝒌𝑵 − 𝒎 ↶
56
0.92
𝑀𝐶𝐵 = 2.72 + (60) = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟏𝒌𝑵 − 𝒎 ↷
56
0.92
𝑀𝐶𝐵 = −2.72 + (−60) = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟏𝒌𝑵 − 𝒎 ↶
56
0.92
𝑀𝐷𝐶 = −1.32 + (−80) = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟑 𝒌𝑵 − 𝒎 ↶
56

22
Structural Theory 2

Exercises:

Plate No. 10

1. Determine the member end moments for the frames. (There is no sideways)

2. Determine the fixed end moment of the frame shown. (No sideways)

3. The frame is made from pipe that is fixed connected. If it supports the loading shown,
determine the moments developed at each of the joints. EI is constant.

23
Structural Theory 2

4. Determine the reactions at A & D. Assume the supports at A & D are fixed and B & C
are fixed connected. EI is constant.

5. A horizontal beam ABC is simply supported at both ends at A and C And a roller at
the center of the beam at B. It carries a uniform load of 20 KN/m. The center support
at B settles 12 mm. E= 200,00. Find moment B.

24
Structural Theory 2

References:

Books

• Aslam Kassimali, STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

• R.C. Hibbeler ; STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
• Matias Arreola, STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
• V. Besavilla Jr., STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Website:
[Link] [Link]

Suggested Links:

• [Link]
• [Link]

25
Structural Theory 2

Lesson 10
Castigliano’s Theorems on Beams and Frames

Learning Objectives:

At the end of lesson, the students should be able to:

1. determine the moment equations for the beams and frames due to external loads;
2. determine the moment equations for the beams and frames due to unit load and unit
moment;
3. follow the procedure in determining the deflection and angle of rotation using Castigliano’s
theorem for beams and frames;
4. organize the results of the analysis carefully and
5. analyze the deflection and angle of rotation of beams and frames using the Castigliano’s
theorem for beams and frames

Time frame: 5 hours

Introduction:

Italian Engineer Alberto Castigliano (1847 – 1884) developed a method of

determining deflection of structures by strain energy method. His Theorem of the
Derivatives of Internal Work of Deformation extended its application to the calculation of
relative rotations and displacements between points in the structure and to the study of
beams in flexure. Energy of structure is its capacity of doing work and strain energy is the
internal energy in the structure because of its deformation. Where U denotes the strain
energy and WI represents the work done by internal forces. The expression of strain
energy depends therefore on the internal forces that can develop in the member due to
applied external forces. For linearly elastic structures, the partial derivative of the strain
energy with respect to an applied force (or couple) is equal to the displacement (or
rotation) of the force.

The Internal Bending strain energy for a beam is given by (U i=∫ 𝑀2 𝑑𝑥/𝐸𝐼).
Substituting this equation into (∆i=∂i/∂Pi) and omitting the subscript I, we have

𝜕 𝐿 𝑀2 𝑑𝑥
∆=𝜕𝑃 ∫0 2𝐸𝐼

Rather than squaring the expression for internal moment M, integrating, and then taking
the partial derivative, it is generally easier to differentiate prior to integration. Provided E
and I are constant.

1
Structural Theory 2

𝐿 𝜕𝑀 𝑑𝑥
∆=∫0 𝑀( 𝜕𝑃 ) 𝐸𝐼

Where:

∆= external displacement of the point caused by the real loads acting on the beam or
frame.

P= external force applied to the beam or frame in the direction of ∆.

M= internal moment in the beam or the frame, expressed as a function of x and caused
by both the force P and the real loads on the beam.

E= modulus of elasticity of the beam material.

I= moment of inertia of the cross-section area computed about the neutral axis.

If the slope Ө at a point is to be determined, we must find the partial derivative of the moment M
with respect to an external couple moment M’ acting at the point.

𝐿 𝜕𝑀 𝑑𝑥
Ө= ∫0 𝑀(𝜕𝑀′ ) 𝐸𝐼

Procedure of Analysis

The following procedure provides a method that may be used to determine the
deflection and/or slope at a point in a beam or frame using castigliano’s theorem.

External Force P or Couple Moment M’

 Place a force P on the beam or frame at the point and in the direction of the
desired displacement.
 If the slope is to be determined, place a couple moment M’ at the point.
 It is assumed that both P’ and M’ have a variable magnitude.
Internal Moments M

 Establish appropriate x coordinate that are valid within regions of the beam or
couple moment.
 Calculate the internal moment M as a function of P or M’ and each x coordinate.
Also, compute the partial derivative or for each coordinate x.

2
Structural Theory 2

 After M and or been determined, assign P or M’ its numerical value if it has

replaced a real force or couple moment. Otherwise, set P or M’ equal to zero.

For the beam shown, find the deflection at C by a.) Virtual Work Method and by b.) Castigliano’s
Theorem.

MAB = 4x + 6 (x-3) MBC = 4x ↺

MAB = 10x -18 ↺

Sol’n:

a.) *by VMW

Segment Origin Limit M m Mm

AB B 3 -7 -10x + 18 -x 10x2 – 18x
BC C 0–3 -4x -x 4 x2

mBC = x ↺ mAB = x ↺

3
Structural Theory 2

1 7 3
∆𝐶 = 𝑁 [ ∫3 ( 10𝑥 2 − 18) dx + ∫0 (4𝑥 2 ) dx ]
200 x 106 2 (9 𝑥 10−5 𝑚4 )
𝑚

∆𝑪 = 40.52 mm

b.) *by Castigliano’s

Segment Origin Limit M 𝜕𝑀 M M (𝜕𝑀⁄𝜕𝑃)

𝜕𝑃 (P = 4kN)
AB B 3–7 -Px -6x +18 -x -10x + 18 10x2 – 18x
BC C 0-3 -Px -x -4x 4 x2

MAB = Px + 6 (x-3) MBC = Px ↺

MAB = -Px -6x +18 ↺

1 7 3
∆𝐶 = 𝑁 [ ∫3 ( 10𝑥 2 − 18) dx + ∫0 (4𝑥 2 ) dx ]
200 x 106 2 (9 𝑥 10−5 𝑚4 )
𝑚

∆𝑪 = 40.52 mm

Frames:

Example 1.

Find the horizontal deflection at point D using a.)Virtual Work Method and b.) Castigliano’s
Theorem.

4
Structural Theory 2

Sol’n:

a. *VMW
∑MA = 0 + ↻ ∑FY = 0 +↑

60 (3) - EY (5) = 0 AY + EY – 60 = 0

EY = 36 kN AY = 24 kN

Ax = 0

MAB = 0 MBC = -24x ↺ MCD = 36x ↻ MDE = 0

Members Origin Limit M m Mm I

AB A 0–5 0 -x 0 2I
BC B 0–3 -24x x–5 -24x2 + 120x 2I
CD D 0–2 36x x 36x2 2I
DE E 0-3 0 0 0 I

∑MA = 0 + ↻

1 kN (5) - EY (5) = 0

EY = 1 kN

AY = 1 kN

AX = 1 kN ⃪

5
Structural Theory 2

mAB = x ↺ mBC = −𝑥 + 5 ↺

mBC = - (x) + 5 mCD = 𝑥 ↻ mDE = 0

1 3 2
∆𝐷 𝐻 = 1 [ ∫0 ( − 24𝑥 2 + 120x) dx + ∫0 (36𝑥 2 ) dx ]
2 (15 𝑥 1012 )(1000)

∆𝐷𝐻 = 14 mm

b. *Castigliano’s Theorem

∑MA = 0 + ↻ AY + EY – 60 = 0

60 (3) + P (5)- EY (5) = 0 AY = 60 – P – 36

5𝑃+180 AY = 24 – P ↑
EY =
5

AX = P ⃪
EY = P + 36 ↑

∑FY = 0 +↑

Segment Origin Limit M 𝜕𝑀 M M (𝜕𝑀⁄𝜕𝑃)

𝜕P (P = 0)
AB A 0–5 -Px -𝑥 0 0
BC B 0–3 −5𝑃 − 24𝑥 + 𝑃𝑥 −5 + 𝑥 −24𝑥 -24x2 + 120x
CD D 0–2 𝑃𝑥 + 36𝑥 𝑥 36x 36x2
DE E 0-3 0 0 0 0

6
Structural Theory 2

MAB = Px ↺ MBC = 5P + (24-P)(x)

MBC = 5𝑃 + 24𝑥 − 𝑃𝑥 ↺

MCD = Px + 36x ↻ MDE = 0

1 3
∆𝐷 𝐻 = 1 [ ∫0 ( − 24𝑥 2 +
2 (15 𝑥 1012 )(1000)
2
120x) dx + ∫0 (36𝑥 2 ) dx ]

∆𝐷𝐻 = 14 mm

7
Structural Theory 2

Trusses:

Example 1:

Use Castigliano’s Theorem to determine the horizontal components of the deflection at joint B of
the truss shown.

Sol’n:

∑MA = 0 + ↻ ∑FY = 0 +↑

P (8) – CY (12) = 0 AY + CY = 0
8𝑃 2𝑃 AY = 8 – (4-0.5P)
CY = = ↑
12 3
2𝑃
AY = ↓
3

@ A:

@ C:

∑FY = 0 +↑
∑FY = 0 +↑
4
-AY + AB ( )= 0 4
5 CY - CB ( ) = 0
5
2𝑃 5
AB= ( ) 2𝑃 5
3 4 CB = ( )
3 4
5
AB= P “T” 5
6 CB = P “C”
6

8
Structural Theory 2

Segment N 𝜕𝑁 N = 10k N(
𝜕𝑁
) L
𝜕P
𝜕P
AB 5 5 50 250 10’
P
6
6 6 36
BC 5 5 50 250 10’
− P − -
6 6
6 36
1 250 250
∆𝐵𝐻 = 𝑘 1 [ (10’) + (10’) ]
4176000 ( )𝑓𝑡 2 36 36
𝑓𝑡2 48

∆𝑩𝑯 = 0.0192 in. →

Exercises:

Plate 10

A. Beams

Direction: Solve the following problems with complete solutions using Castigliano’s
theorems.

1. Determine the slope and displacement at

point A. EI is constant.

2. Determine the displacement of point B of

the steel beam.
Take E = 200 GPa,
I = 500 (106) mm4.
3. Determine the displacement at point C. Use E
= 29(103) ksi,
I = 800 in4.
4. Determine the displacement at point C. EI is
constant.

5. Determine the slope and displacement at

point A. EI is constant.

B. (Frames)

Problems

1. Determine the vertical deflection at the

rocker support D. EI is constant.

9
Structural Theory 2

2. The L-shaped frame is made from two segments, each of length L and flexural
stiffness EI. If it is subjected to the uniform distributed load, determine the horizontal
displacement of the end C.

3. Determine the vertical displacement at

point B of problem number 2.

4. Determine the horizontal displacement of

point C. EI is constant.

5. Determine the vertical deflection at C.

The cross-sectional area and moment of
inertia of each segment is shown in the
figure. Take E = 200 GPa. Assume A is
a fixed support.

References:
 Matias A. Areola , Theory of Structures
 Aslam Kassimali , Structural Analysis 2nd Edition
 R.C. Hibbeler , Structural Analysis 6th Edition

You tube links:

[Link]
[Link]

10
Structural Theory 2

Lesson 9
Plastic Analysis

Learning Objectives:

At the end of lesson, the students should be able to:

1. compare elastic and plastic theories;

2. determine the plastic section modulus, shape factor and plastic moment of a section
identify the location of plastic hinges of a simple beam;

Time frame: 6 hours

Introduction:
In Plastic Theory , design is based on the greatest load that can be carried by a structure
acting as a unit , rather than basing the design on the allowable stress method which is the
usual practice. Other names for Plastic Design are: Limit Design, Collapse Design, and
Ultimate Stress Design. However, the latter name has a different meaning in reinforced
concrete design and it is not often used as a synonym for Plastic Design.

In 1914, Gabor Kazinczy, a Hungarian, observed that the ductility property of steel
allowed a redistribution of stress in an overloaded statically indeterminate structure. In 1939,
J.A, Van den Broek introduced plastic theory in the United States which he called “Limit
Design”. He published a paper entitled “Theory of Limit Design” in the proceedings of the
American Society of Civil Engineers. In the same year the term “plastic hinge” was introduced
in the United States by Prof. George Winter in his discussion of Van den Broek’s paper.

Properties of Structural Steel

If a test specimen of structural steel is subjected to a tensile load, it will elongate. As

the load is increased the specimen gradually elongates at very slow rate directly proportional
to the load. Thus, if unit stress is plotted against unit strain as in Fig. 1 (a), the initial portion of
the stress diagram is a straight line with a steep slope.

1
Structural Theory 2

Fig. 1

Stress-strain diagram for mild structural steel.

(a) Normal diagram; (b) Idealized diagram for plastic design

The stress at the highest point of the straight-line portion, point 1, of the stress-strain
diagram is the “proportional limit”. Hooke’s Law applies within the range 0 – 1. Beyond point 1
the material begins to yield, so that even without an increase in stress between points 1 and 3,
the material will continue to elongate. The unit stress, F y, corresponding to point 2 is called the
“yield stress”. The region after point 3 indicates that increasing strain requires an increase in
stress, and is called the strain-hardening state. The ultimate stress, denoted by Fu, is reached
at point 4, after which the specimen will rupture.

The yielding of steel without stress increase is a very useful property. The ductility
property of steel enables it to undergo large deformations without rupture and permits the
stresses in the members of a structure to readjust. In the event of an overload and one point
in a steel structure reaches the yield point, local yielding of that part of the structure without
increasing the stress will prevent failure.

Theory of Plastic Analysis

Consider the variation in stress of a rectangular beam, Fig. 2 (a), as the bending
moment is increased at a particular section until the yield stress is obtained at the extreme
fibers. The linear stress variation within the elastic strain range is shown in Fig. 2 (b). The
bending moment that will produce the yield stress Fy in the extreme fibers is called the yield
moment My.

Fig. 2 Development of a plastic hinge in a rectangular section.

2
Structural Theory 2

In the flexure formula

M
F=
S

when the moment M increases the stress F also increases until the yield stress Fy is attained.
At this point the yield moment will assume the value
bh2
My = F
6 y
bh2
Where is the section modulus S of the rectangular section.
6

The fibers stressed to Fy cannot increase their stress and thus begin to yield. Increasing
the moment M will cause the fibers near the neutral axis to yield and the stress distribution will
be that shown in Fig.2 (d). Finally, when the stress distribution attains shown in Fig. 2 (e) all
the fibers will have yielded and the moment at this stage will be the plastic moment M p, whose
value is

bh h bh2
Mp = ( Fy ) = F
2 2 4 y
bh2
The quantity is called “plastic section modulus” and is denoted by z. The “shape
4
factor”, denoted by f, is the ratio of s
Mp z
f= =
My s

For a rectangle the shape factor f is 1.5. For standard rolled beam scetion, the value of the
shape factor ranges from 1.08 to 1.20.

The plane where there is no stress, and consequently no strain, is called the plastic
neutral plane whose intersection with the beam crossed-section is the plastic neutral axis.
Since the tensile and compressive stresses are each to Fy, for tension to equal compression,
the tension area must may be equal to the compressive area. Thus, the plastic neutral axis
divides the beam cross-section into two equal areas.

Factors of Safety and Load Factors

In elastic design the value of the factor of safety is calculated by dividing the yield point
of the material of the structure by its working stress. The load factor is the product obtained by
multiplying the safety factor by the shape factor.

To obtain the ultimate loads for plastic design, the given or working loads are multiplied
by the load factor. The members of the structure under consideration are proportioned based
on the ultimate loads. Depending on the judgment of the designer, load factors vary from 1.50
to 2.00.

3
Structural Theory 2

Moment of Inertia for Geometric Shape:

bh3 bh2 bh2

I= ; z= ; s=
12 4 6

bh3
I=
36

πD4 D3 πD3
I= ; z= ; s=
64 6 32

πD4
I=
128

πab3
I=
4

bh3 bh2 bh2

I= z= ; s=
48 12 24

4
Structural Theory 2

EXAMPLE :

1.) Determine the plastic modulus(z) and the shape factor (f) for each of the areas shown
:

(a) (b)
(c)

Solution :

(a) Rectangle :
1 d
I = b3 c=
12 2
I bd3 /12 bd2
s = = =
c d/2 6

bd2
z= Answer.
4
bd2
Mp = F y z = F y
4
z bd2 /4
f= = = 1.5 Answer .
s bd2 /6

(b) Diamond – Shaped Area :

bh3 d
I= c=
48 2

I bd3 /48 bd2

s= = =
c d/2 24

bd2
z= Answer.
12

bd2
Mp = F y z = F y
12

z bd2 /12
f= = = 2.0 Answer.
s bd2 /24

(c) Circle :

5
Structural Theory 2

πd4 d
I= c=
64 2

I πd4 /64 πd3

s= = =
c d/2 32

d3
z= Answer.
6

d3
Mp = F y z = F y ( )
6
z d3 /6
f= = = 1.698 Answer.
s πd3 /32

2. Determine the values of s , z , and f for the T-section shown .

Solution :

(a) A1 = 200(50) = 10000 mm2

A2 = 240(50) = 12500 mm2

(200x50x275)+(250x50x125)
y̅ =
(10000+12500)

y̅ = 191.67 mm

b1 h1 3 2 b2 h2 3
I= + Ad1 + + Ad2 2
12 12
200(50)3 50(250)3
I= + (200x50)(275-191.67)2 + + (250x50)(191.67-125)2
12 12

I = 192.188x106 mm4

c = y̅ = 191.67 mm
I 192.188x106 mm4
s= =
c 191.67 mm

s = 1.003x106 mm3 Answer.

(b) z = A1y1 + A2y2 + A3y3

6
Structural Theory 2

50 25 225
z = 200(50) ( +25) + 25(50)( ) + 225(50)( )
2 2 2

z = 1.781x106 mm3 Answer.

Mp = Fyz = Fy (1.781x106)
z 1.781x106 mm3
(c) f= =
s 1.003x106 mm3

f = 1.776 Answer.

3. Solve for s, z, and f.

b 1 h1 3 b 2 h2 3
(a) I= -
12 12

260(240)3 200(180)3
I= -
12 12

I = 202.3x106 mm4
240
c= = 120 mm
2

I 202.3x106 mm4
s= =
c 120mm

s = 1.686x106 mm3 Answer.

(b) A1 = A4 = 30(260) = 7800 mm2 y1 = y4 =105 mm

A2 = A3 = 30(180) = 5400 mm2 y2 = y3 = 45 mm

z = A1y1 + A2y2 + A3y3 + A4y4

= 7800(105) + 5400(45) + 5400(45) + 7800(105)

z = 2.124x106 mm3 Answer.

z 2.124x106 mm3
(c) f= =
s 1.686x106 mm3

f = 1.26 Answer.

EVALUATION :

7
Structural Theory 2

PART I. OBJECTIVE

Instruction : Answer the following questions.

1.) It is defined as the analysis in which the critetion for the design of structures is the ultimate load.
𝐼
2.) It is defined as S= , where I is the second moment of area (or moment of inertia) and c is the distance
𝑐
from the neutral axis to any given fibre.
3.) In Plastic Theory , design is based on the __________ that can be carried by a structure acting as a unit ,
rather than basing the design on the allowable stress method which is the usual practice.

4.) What are the other names for Plastic Design ?

5.) Who observed that the ductility property of steel allowed a redistribution of stress in an overloaded statically
indeterminate structure ?

6-7.)In 1939, __________ introduced plastic theory in the United States which he called “Limit Design”. He
published a paper entitled __________ in the proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers.

8.) In the same year the term __________was introduced in the United States by Prof. George Winter in his
discussion of Van den Broek’s paper.

9.) The “shape factor”, denoted by f, is the ratio of __________.

10.) If a test specimen of structural steel is subjected to a tensile load, it will __________.

PART II. PROBLEM SOLVING

Instruction: Answer the following problems.

1.) In the figure shown, determine the s , z , and f.

8
Structural Theory 2

2.) Determine s , z and f if the width of the beam is 100 mm.

3.) Determine s , z and f if the thickness of the flange is 30 mm.

References:

Books

• Aslam Kassimali, STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

• R.C. Hibbeler ; STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
• Matias Arreola, STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
• V. Besavilla Jr., STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Website:
[Link] [Link]

9
Structural Theory 2

Suggested Links:

• [Link]
• [Link]

10
Structural Theory 2

Lesson 12

Three Moment Equations

Learning Objectives:

At the end of lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Apply the three moment equations in the analysis of continuous beams and fixed
ended beams.
2. Determine the settlement of beams using three moment equations.
3. Determine the support reactions of continuous beams to draw the shear and
moment diagrams.

Time frame: 5 hours

Introduction:

Continuous beams are beams with more than one span. Continuous beams are widely
used in bridge and building construction. As a result, continuous beams subjected to
transverse loads and support settlements must be analyzed frequently in design. When a
beam is continuous over many supports and the moment of inertia of different spans varies,
the force method of analysis becomes quite complex.

However, for this particular case (continuous beam), the force method of analysis
could be simplified further by treating the unknown bending moments at the supports as
unknowns. At each intermediate support of a continuous beam, one compatibility equation is
written in terms of the loads on the adjacent span and the bending moment at left, center (the
support where the compatibility equation is written).

At the same time, two consecutive spans of the continuous beam are considered. The
compatibility equation is known as the equation of three moments because it is written in terms
of three moments.

As a result, each span is treated as a single, simply supported beam with external
loads and two end support moments.

One compatibility equation in terms of three moments is written for each intermediate
support. As a result, there are as many equations as there are unknowns. There will only be
three unknowns in each equation.

It should be noted that Clapeyron proposed this method for the first time in 1857. Three
moment equations for unyielding supports are derived in this lesson, and the three moment
equations are modified to consider support moments in the following lesson.

1
Structural Theory 2

 General Formula of the Three Moment Equation

MA L 1 L1 L2 L 6𝐴ā 6𝐴ƃ
+ 2MB( + ) + MC 2+ + =0
I1 I1 I2 I2 I 1L 1 I 2L 2

Examples:
1. From the give figure below, determine moment at B. I is constant.

For ABC:

6𝐴ā 6𝐴𝑏̅
𝑀𝐴𝐿1 + 2𝑀𝐵 (𝐿1 + 𝐿2 ) + 𝑀𝐶 𝐿2 + + + =0
𝐿1 𝐿2
40(2) 25(5) 60(3)
5𝑀𝑎 + 2𝑀𝐵 (5 + 7) + 7𝑀𝐶 + [ (52 − 22 )] + [ (72 − 52 )] + [ (72 − 32 )] = 0
5 7 7

24𝑀𝐵 − 60(7) + 336 + 428.5714 + 1028.5714 = 0

𝑴𝑩 = −𝟓𝟕. 𝟐𝟏 𝑲𝑵. 𝒎

Determine the bending moments in the beams over the supports and find the reactions.

Solution:

for span DA & AB:

General Equation:

2
Structural Theory 2

6𝐴ā 6𝐴ƃ h1 h2
MAL1 + 2MB(L1 + L2) + MCL2 + + = 6EI ( + )→ ①
𝐿 𝐿 L1 L2

0 + 2MA(0 + 10) + MB(10) + 0 + 2500 = 0

6𝐴ƃ wL3 10(10)3
= = = 2500
𝐿 4 4

For span AB & BC:

MC = 0MA(10) + 2MB(10 + 10) + 2500 + 750 = 0 → ②

6𝐴ƃ Pa 2 20(5)
= (L – a2) = (102 – 52) = 750
𝐿 4 10

By Equating ① & ② equations and by using calculator

20MA +10MB = -2500

10 MA +40MB = -3250

MA = -96.43 kN.m

MB = -57.14 kN.m

Segments:

∑MB = 0 + ↻

RA(10) – 96.43 + 57.14 – (10)(10)(5) = 0

RA = 53.93 kN ↑

∑Fv = 0 c+

RA + RB1 – 10(10) = 0

RB1 = -46.07 kN ↑

3
Structural Theory 2

∑MC = 0 + ↻

-57.14 + RB2(10) – 20(5) = 0

RB2 = 15.71 kN ↑

RB = 46.07 + 15.71

RB = 61.78 kN ↑

∑Fv = 0 c+

RC + RB2 – 20 = 0

RC = -4.29 kN ↑

Problem No.2

Solve the beam shown:

Solution:

MA = 0

MC = 0

Considering span AB & BC

6𝐴ā wL3 25(10)3

= = = 6250
I 1L 4 4

4
Structural Theory 2

6𝐴ƃ wL3 25(20)3

= = = 25000
I 2L 4 4

General Formula:
MA L 1 L1 L2 L 6𝐴ā 6𝐴ƃ
+ 2MB( + ) + MC 2+ + =0
I1 I1 I2 I2 I 1L 1 I 2L 2

0 + 2MB(10 + 10) + 0 + 6250 + 2500 = 0

− 31250
MB =
40

MB = - 781.25 kN.m

Span AB:

∑MB = 0 + ↻

781.25 – 25(10)(5) + RA(10) = 0

RA = 46.87 kN ↑

∑Fv = 0 c+

RA + RB1 – 25(10) = 0

RB1 = 203.125 kN ↑

5
Structural Theory 2

Span BC:

∑MB = 0 + ↻

-781.25 + 25(20)(10) – RC(20) = 0

RC = 210.9375 kN ↑

∑Fv = 0 c+

RC + RB2 – (25)20 = 0

RB2 = 289.0625 kN ↑

RA = 46.87 kN ↑

RB = 203.9375 + 289.0625

RB = 492.1875 kN ↑

RC = 210.9375 kN ↑

6
Structural Theory 2

Diagrams:

Problem No.3

6𝐴ā 6𝐴ƃ
Evaluate the factors and . The roller support may resist upward or downward
𝐿 𝐿
reaction.

7
Structural Theory 2

Solution:

∑MB = 0 ↻ +

R1 (5) + 500 - ½(600) (3) (⅓ • 3) = 0

R1 = 80 N ↑

6𝐴ā
for
𝐿

6𝐴ā 3(900) 6
= { [½ (400) (5) (⅔ • 3) ] + [500 • 4 • 3] + [-( ) • (4 • 4)] }
𝐿 4 5

6𝐴ā
= 7636 N.m2
𝐿

8
Structural Theory 2

6𝐴ƃ
for
𝐿

6𝐴ƃ 5 3(900) 3 6
= { [½ (400) (5) ( ) ] + [500 • 4 • 2] - [( ) • ( )] }
𝐿 3 4 5 5

6𝐴ƃ
= 6314 N.m2
𝐿

Problem No.4

For the beam shown in the figure, compute the value of EIy at x = 3 and at the end of
the overhang. Given already the reactions R1 = 400 N & R2 = 2600 N, draw the V & M &
elastic curve.

Solution:

At x = 3m.

General Equation:
6𝐴ā 6𝐴ƃ h1 h2
MAL1 + 2MB(L1 + L2) + MCL2 + + = 6EI ( + )
𝐿 𝐿 L1 L2

Consider B as a support:

MA = 0

MB = 400(3) – 800(3)(½)(⅓ • 3)

MB = 0

MC = 400(2)(1)

MC = 800N.m

6𝐴ā 8wL3 8
= = (800)(3)3 = 2880
𝐿 60 60

6𝐴ƃ
=0
𝐿

9
Structural Theory 2

From the general equation:

ΔB ΔB
0 + 0 – 800 + 2880 + 0 = 6EI ( + )
3 1

4ΔB
-800 + 2880 = 6EI ( )
3

EIy = 260 N.m3

At the overhang:

Consider D as a support:

Span AC & CD:

h 2 = ΔD = y

MA = 0

MC = 800N.m

MD = 0

6𝐴ā 6 2400(4) 1200(3) 1 3600

= {[ (⅔ • 4) ] + [ ( • 3)] + [( )(3)(¼)(3)] }
𝐿 5 2 4 5 3

6𝐴ā
= 6360 N.m2
𝐿

6𝐴ƃ wL3 400(2)3

= = = 800
𝐿 4 4

ΔD
0 + (2)(-800)(6) + 0 + 6360 + 800 = 6EI (0 − )
2

Δ
-2440 = 6EI (− D)
2

EIy = 813.33 N.m3

For Shear, Moment, & Elastic Curve Diagrams

10
Structural Theory 2

PROBLEM NO.5

11
Structural Theory 2

For the beam in the figure, compute the value of P that will cause a zero deflection
under P.

Solution:

General Equation:
6𝐴ā 6𝐴ƃ h1 h2
MAL1 + 2MB(L1 + L2) + MCL2 + + = 6EI ( + )
𝐿 𝐿 L1 L2

Consider A as a support:

MA = 0

MB = - P

MC = 0

6𝐴ā
=0
𝐿

6𝐴ƃ wL2 7wL3 300(3)3 7

= + = + (900 – 300)(3)3
𝐿 4 60 4 60

12
Structural Theory 2

6𝐴ƃ
= 3915
𝐿

0 + 2(-P)(1 + 3) + 0 + 0 + 3915 = 0

-8P = -3915
3915
P=
8

P = 489.375 kN

𝒂 𝒃

A B

DERIVATION:

𝒂 𝒃

𝑳𝟎 L 𝑳𝟐

Span 0 Span 1
Span 2

 Considering spans 0 and 1

6𝐴0 𝑎̅0
=0
𝐿0
6𝐴𝑏̅̅ 𝑃𝑏̅ 2
= (𝐿 − 𝑏̅ 2 )
𝐿 𝐿

6𝐴0 𝑎̅0 6𝐴𝑏̅̅

𝑀0 𝐿0 + 2𝑀𝐴 (𝐿0 + 𝐿) + 𝑀𝐵 𝐿 + + =0
𝐿0 𝐿
𝑃𝑏̅ 2
0 + 2𝑀𝐴 (0 + 𝐿) + 𝑀𝐵 𝐿 + 0 + (𝐿 − 𝑏̅ 2 ) = 0
𝐿
𝑃𝑏̅ 2
2𝑀𝐴 𝐿 + 𝑀𝐵 𝐿 + (𝐿 − 𝑏̅ 2 ) = 0 (𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟏)
𝐿

13
Structural Theory 2

 Considering spans 1 and 2

6𝐴𝑎̅ 𝑃𝑎 2
= (𝐿 − 𝑎2 )
𝐿 𝐿
6𝐴2 𝑏̅̅2
=0
𝐿2

6𝐴𝑎̅ 6𝐴2 𝑏̅̅2

𝑀𝐴 𝐿 + 2𝑀𝐵 (𝐿 + 𝐿2 ) + 𝑀2 𝐿2 + + =0
𝐿 𝐿2
𝑃𝑎 2
𝑀𝐴 𝐿 + 2𝑀𝐵 (𝐿 + 0) + 0 + (𝐿 − 𝑎2 ) + 0 = 0
𝐿
𝑃𝑎 2
𝑀𝐴 𝐿 + 2𝑀𝐵 𝐿 + (𝐿 − 𝑎2 ) = 0 (𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟐)
𝐿

 Solving equation 1 and 2

𝑃𝑏 2
2 [2𝑀𝐴 𝐿 + 𝑀𝐵 𝐿 + (𝐿 − 𝑏̅ 2 ) = 0]
𝐿
𝑃𝑎
𝑀𝐴 𝐿 + 2𝑀𝐵 𝐿 + (𝐿2 − 𝑎2 ) = 0
𝐿

2𝑃𝑏 2
4𝑀𝐴 𝐿 + 2𝑀𝐵 𝐿 + (𝐿 − 𝑏̅ 2 ) = 0
𝐿
(−)
𝑃𝑎
[𝑀𝐴 𝐿 + 2𝑀𝐵 𝐿 + (𝐿2 − 𝑎2 ) = 0]
𝐿

2𝑃𝑏̅ 2 𝑃𝑎 2
3𝑀𝐴 𝐿 + 0 + (𝐿 − 𝑏̅ 2 ) − (𝐿 − 𝑎2 ) = 0
𝐿 𝐿
2𝑃𝑏̅ 3 𝑃𝑎3
3𝑀𝐴 𝐿 + 2𝑃𝑏̅𝐿 − − 𝑃𝑎𝐿 + =0
𝐿 𝐿
2𝑃𝑏̅ 3 𝑃𝑎3
+ 𝑃𝑎𝐿 − 2𝑃𝑏̅𝐿 −
𝑀𝐴 = 𝐿 𝐿
3𝐿
2𝑃𝑏̅ 3 𝑃𝑎 2𝑃𝑏̅ 𝑃𝑎3
𝑀𝐴 = + − − 2
3𝐿2 3 3 3𝐿
1 2𝑃𝑏̅ 3 𝑃𝑎3
𝑀𝐴 = [ 2 + 𝑃𝑎 − 2𝑃𝑏̅ − 2 ]
3 𝐿 𝐿
2𝑃𝑏̅ + 𝑃𝑎𝐿 − 2𝑃𝑏̅𝐿 − 𝑃𝑎3
3 2 2
𝑀𝐴 =
3𝐿2
3𝐿 𝑀𝐴 = 2𝑃𝑏̅ + 𝑃𝑎(𝑎 + 𝑏̅)2 − 2𝑃𝑏̅(𝑎 + 𝑏̅)2 − 𝑃𝑎3
2 3

3𝐿2 𝑀𝐴 = 2𝑃𝑏̅ 3 + 𝑃𝑎(𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏̅ + 𝑏̅ 2 ) − 2𝑃𝑏̅(𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏̅ + 𝑏̅ 2 ) − 𝑃𝑎3

14
Structural Theory 2

3𝐿2 𝑀𝐴 = 2𝑃𝑏̅ 3 + 𝑃𝑎3 + 2𝑃𝑎2 𝑏̅ + 𝑃𝑎𝑏̅ 2 − 2𝑃𝑎2 𝑏̅ − 4𝑃𝑎𝑏̅ 2 − 2𝑃𝑏̅ 3 − 𝑃𝑎3

3𝑃𝑎𝑏̅ 2
𝑀𝐴 = −
3𝐿2
𝑷𝒂𝒃𝟐
𝑴𝑨 = − 𝟐
𝑳

 Substitute the value of 𝑴𝑨 to either equation 1 and 2

 From equation 1

𝑃𝑏̅ 2
2𝑀𝐴 𝐿 + 𝑀𝐵 𝐿 + (𝐿 − 𝑏̅ 2 ) = 0
𝐿
𝑃𝑎𝑏̅ 2 𝑃𝑏̅ 2
2 (− 2 ) 𝐿 + 𝑀𝐵 𝐿 + (𝐿 − 𝑏̅ 2 ) = 0
𝐿 𝐿
2𝑃𝑎𝑏̅ 2 𝑃𝑏̅ 2
− + 𝑀𝐵 𝐿 + (𝐿 − 𝑏̅ 2 ) = 0
𝐿 𝐿
2𝑃𝑎𝑏̅ 2 𝑃𝑏̅ 3
− 𝑃𝑏̅𝐿 +
𝑀𝐵 = 𝐿 𝐿
𝐿
2𝑃𝑎𝑏̅ 2 𝑃𝑏̅ 3
= − 𝑃𝑏̅ +
𝐿2 𝐿2
2𝑃𝑎𝑏̅ − 𝑃𝑏̅𝐿 + 𝑃𝑏̅ 3
2 2
=
𝐿2
2𝑃𝑎𝑏̅ − 𝑃𝑏̅(𝑎 + 𝑏̅)2 + 𝑃𝑏̅ 3
2
=
𝐿2
2𝑃𝑎𝑏̅ − 𝑃𝑏̅(𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏̅ + 𝑏̅ 2 )2 + 𝑃𝑏̅ 3
2
=
𝐿2
2𝑃𝑎𝑏̅ − 𝑃𝑎 𝑏̅ − 2𝑃𝑎𝑏̅ 2 − 𝑃𝑏̅ 3 + 𝑃𝑏̅ 3
2 2
=
𝐿2
2
𝑃𝑎 𝑏̅
𝑀𝐵 = − 2
𝐿
𝑷𝒂𝟐 𝒃
𝑴𝑩 =
𝑳𝟐

Exercises:

Plate no. 12

Problems:

1. From the continuous beam shown, determine the following;

15
Structural Theory 2

a. moment at B.
b. moment at C.

2. From the continuous beam and

loading shown, determine the
moments and reactions at the support.

3. From the given shown with constant value

of EI=20000 N.m2, compute the following:
a. value of moment at A.
b. value of the reaction at B.
c. deflection at C.

4. For the continuous beam and loading

shown, compute the value of all the
moment and reactions at the support.

5. A horizontal beam ABC is simply supported

at both ends at A and C and A roller at the
center of the beam at B. It carries a uniform
load of 10 N/m, the center support at B
settles 14 mm. EI= 12000 kN.m 2.

6. The continuous beam is supposed

on a rigid foundation which is at the
same level. Determine the bending
moment in the beam.

7. From the figure

shown, compute the
moments at the
supports.

16
Structural Theory 2

8. In the propped beam shown,

determine the prop reaction.

9. Compute the moments over the supports

for the beam shown.

10. From the figure shown, compute the

reaction at A, the deflection at B and the
deflection at the end of the overhang at
D.

Activity 1Ft

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

References:

1. Matias A. Arreola, Structural Analysis

2. V. Besavilla, Structural Analysis

17
ANGLE OF ROTATION ON
BEAMS
VIRTUAL WORK METHOD

ANGLE OF ROTATION ON BEAMS AND FRAMES

CONCEPTS/ PRINCIPLE:
The principle of virtual work method maybe
formulated for beam and frame deflections by
considering a simply supported beam with one unit
load between the supports. To compute deflection Δ
a virtual unit load acting in the direction of Δ is placed
on the beam and the internal virtual moment m is
determined by the method of sections at an arbitrary
location x from the left support. When real loads act
on the beam, the point where the one unit load is
located was displaced Δ.
. Provided these loads cause linear elastic material
response, the element dx deforms or rotates
dӨ=M/EI dx, where M is the internal moment at x
caused by the real loads. Consequently, the
external virtual work done the moment m is
mdӨ=mM/EI dx. Summing the effects on all the
element dx along the beam requires an
integration.
(ref: page 364, chapter 9.7, Hibbeler,
Structural Analysis)
𝐿 mM
1.Δ = ‫׬‬0 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥

𝐿 𝑚Ө M
1.Ө = ‫׬‬0 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥
where:
1 = external virtual unit acting on the beam or frame in
the direction of Δ
m = internal virtual moment in the beam or frame,
expressed as a function of x and caused by
the external virtual unit load.
Δ = external displacement of the point caused by the
real loads acting on the beam or frame.
M = internal moment in the beam or frame, expressed as
a function of x and caused by the real loads.
E = modulus of elasticity of the material
I = moment of inertia of cross-sectional area, computed
about the neutral axis
Ө = slope of the deflection/displacement of the caused by
the real loads acting on the beam or frame.
PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS:
The following procedure may be used to
determine the displacement and/or the slope at a
point on the elastic curve of a beam or frame using
the method of virtual work.
Virtual Moments m or 𝑚Ө
‫ ٭‬Place a unit load on the beam or frame at the
point and in the direction of the the
desired displacement.
‫ ٭‬If the slope is to be determined, place a unit
couple moment at the point.
‫ ٭‬Established appropriate x coordinates that are
valid within regions of the beam
or frame where there is no discontinuity of
real or virtual load.
Since m or 𝑚Ө was assumed to act in the conventional
positive direction, it is
important that positive M acts in this same
direction. This is necessary since
positive or negative internal work depends upon
the direction sense of load
(defined by ±m or ± 𝑚Ө ) and displacement
𝑑𝑥
(defined by ± M ).
𝐸𝐼
 with the virtual load in place, and all
real loads removed from the beam the
frame, calculate the or
internal moment m or 𝑚Ө
as a function of x coordinate.
‫ ٭‬Assume m or 𝑚Ө acts in the conventional
positive direction.
Real Moments

‫ ٭‬Using the same x coordinates as those

established for m or 𝑚Ө , determine the
internal moments M caused by the real loads.
Virtual-Work Equation

‫ ٭‬Apply the equation of virtual work to determine

the desired displacement Δ or
rotation Ө. It is important to retain the algebraic
sign of each integral
calculated within its specified region.
‫ ٭‬If the algebraic sum of all the integrals for the
entire beam or frame is positive,
Δ or Ө is in the same direction as the virtual unit
load or unit couple moment,
respectively. If a negative value results, the
direction of Δ or Ө is opposite to
that of the unit load or unit couple moment.
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
Determine the slope Ө of point B of the steel beam
shown. Take E=200GPa,
I=500x10⁶ mm⁴.
SOLUTION:

Virtual Moment m. the vertical displacement of point

B is obtained by placing a virtual unit load of 1 kN.
By inspection there are no discontinuities of loading
in the beam for both the real and virtual loads.
Thus, a single x coordinate can be used to
determine can be used to determine the virtual
strain energy. This coordinate will be selected with
its origin at B, since the reaction at A do not have to
be determined in order to find the internal moments
m and M. Using the method of sections, the
internal moment m is formulated as shown.
Real Moment M. Using the same x coordinate, the
internal moment M is formulated as shown.

Ʃ𝑚𝑥 = 0 +↻
-𝑀𝑥 + 12(X)(X/2) = 0
Mx = -6𝑋 2
For 𝑚𝑜 ;
Ʃ𝑚𝑜 = 0 +↻

𝑚𝑜 = -1 kN -m
Limits 𝑚𝑜 (kN-
Segment Origin M(kN-m)
(m) m)
BA B 0-10 −6x2 −1

Virtual-Work Equation. The slope of B is thus

𝐿 𝑚𝑜 𝑀 10 −1 −6𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
1kN -m.Ө𝐵 =‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬0
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
2000 𝑘𝑁² . 𝑚³
=
𝐸𝐼
 2000 𝑘𝑁2 . 𝑚3
Ө𝐵 =200 106 𝑘𝑁 1𝑚 4
500𝑥106 𝑚𝑚⁴( )
𝑚2 1000𝑚

Ө𝐵 = 0.02 rad
(ref: page 367, chapter 9.7, Hibbeler,
Structural Analysis)
2. Determine the slope at D of the steel beam shown.
E=29x103 ksi, I= 800 𝑖𝑛4 .
SOLUTION:

Virtual moments m. the beam is subject to a virtual

couple unit at D as shown. By inspection, three
coordinates, such as x_(1, ) x_(2, )and x_3 must be
used to cover all the regions of the beam. Notice that
these coordinates cover regions where no discontinuities
in either real or virtual load occur. The internal moments
m have been computed using the methods of sections.

Real Moments M. the reaction on the beam are

computed first; then, using the same x coordinates as
those used for m, the internal moments M are
determined as shown.
For m_o ;
 SEGMENT AB; SEGMENT BC; SEGMENT CD;
〖Ʃm〗_o = 0 +↻ 〖Ʃm〗_o = 0 +↻ 〖Ʃm〗_o = 0 +↻
-m_o – 0.05X = 0 m_o +1 – 0.05(X+15) =0 m_o +1 =0
m_o = -0.05X m_o = -1+ 0.05(X+15) m_o = -1
Segment Origin Limits (ft) M (k-ft) m_o (k-ft)
AB A 0-10 0 -0.05X
BC B 10-20 7X 0.05(X+15)-1
CD C 0-15 80-X -1

Virtual-Work Equation. Applying the equation of virtual

work to the beam using the data we have.
𝐿 𝑚𝑜 𝑀
1k-ft.Ө𝐷 = ‫׬‬0 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥
10 −0.05𝑋 0 𝑑𝑥1 20 (7𝑋2 )(0.05 𝑋+15 −1)𝑑𝑥2
= ‫׬‬0 +‫׬‬10
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
15 −1 80−𝑋3 𝑑𝑥
+ ‫׬‬0 𝐸𝐼
 0 554.167 7875
Ө𝐷 = + -
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼

7320.833 𝑘.𝑓𝑡 3
=-
𝐸𝐼
3
− 7320.833 𝑘 2 .𝑓𝑡 3 (12)2 𝑖𝑛 ൗ𝑓𝑡3
Ө𝐷 = 𝑘
29𝑥106 2 (800𝑖𝑛4 )
𝑖𝑛

Ө𝐷 = - 4.544 x 10−5 rad

(ref: page 370, chapter 9, Hibbeler,
Structural Analysis)

3. Determine the slope Ө of the steel beam shown. Take

E =200 GPa, I = 60(10)6 𝑚𝑚4 .
SOLUTION:
Virtual Moment 𝑚𝑜 . The slope at B is determined by
placing a virtual unit couple moment of 1kN.m at B.
Here two x coordinates must be selected in order to
determine the total virtual strain energy in the beam. .
Coordinate 𝑥1 accounts for the strain energy within
segment AB and coordinate 𝑥2 accounts for that in
segment BC. The internal moment m_o within each of
each segments are computed using the methods of
sections.
Real Moments M. Using the coordinates 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 , the
internal moments M are computed as shown.

𝑚𝑜 (kN-
Segment Origin Limits (m) M(kN-m)
m)

AB A 0-5 -3x 0
BC B 0-5 -3(5+x) 1

Virtual-Work Equation. The slope at B is thus given by

 𝐿 𝑚𝑜 𝑀
1kN-m.Ө𝐵 = ‫׬‬0 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥

5 (0)(−3𝑥1 ) 5 (1)(−3(5+𝑥2 )
=‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑥1 + ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
112.5 𝑘𝑁2 .𝑚3
Ө𝐵 =-
𝐸𝐼
112.5 𝑘𝑁2 .𝑚3
=- 𝑘𝑁 1𝑚
200(10)6 2 𝑥 60(10)6 𝑚𝑚4 𝑥 ( )2
𝑚 1000𝑚𝑚

Ө𝐵 = -0.00938 rad
(ref: page 369, chapter 9, Hibbeler, Structural Analysis)
PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL
WORK METHOD
The principle of virtual work was
developed by John Bernoulli in 1717 and is
sometimes referred to as the unit-load method.
It provides a general means of obtaining the
displacement and slope at a specific point on a
structure, be it a beam, frame, or truss. Before
developing the principle of virtual work, it is
necessary to make some general statements
regarding the principle of work and energy.
Equations:
𝑳 𝒎𝑴
𝟏 (∆) = ‫𝒙𝒅 𝑰𝑬 𝟎׬‬
𝑳 𝒎𝒐 𝑴
𝟏(𝜽) = ‫𝒙𝒅 𝑰𝑬 𝟎׬‬
Where :
1 = external unit load acting on the beam or frame in
the direction
𝑚 = internal virtual moment in the beam or
frame, expressed as a function of x and caused by
the external virtual unit load.
𝑚𝑜 = Caused by a unit couple moment at the point on
the beam where the slope is to be determined.
𝑀 = Internal moment in the beam or frame , expressed
as a function of x and caused by real loads.
𝐸= Modulus of elasticity of the material.
𝐼 = Moment of inertia of cross-sectional area, computed
about the neutral axis.
Procedure for Analysis :
The following step-by step procedure can be
used to determine the slopes and deflections of
frames by the virtual work method.

1. Real System Determine the internal forces at

the ends of the members of the frame due to
the real loading.
2. Virtual System If the deflection of the frame
is to be determined, then apply a unit load at
the point and in the direction of the desired
deflection. If the rotation is to be calculated,
 Then apply a unit couple at the point on
the frame where the rotation is desired.
Determine the member end forces due to the
virtual loading.
3. If necessary, divide the members of the
frame into segments so that the real and
virtual loads and EI are continuous in each
segment.
4. For each segment of the frame, determine an
equation expressing the variation of the
bending moment due to real loading the
bending moment due to real loading (M)
along the length of -
 the segment in terms of position coordinate x.
5. For each segment of the frame, determine
the equation for the bending moment due to
virtual load or couple (m) using the same x
coordinate that was used for this segment in
step 4 to establish the expression for the real
bending moment, M. Any convenient sign
convention can be used for M and m.
However, it is important that the sign
convention be the same for both M and m in
the particular segment.
6. If the effect of axial deformation-
 is to be included in the analysis then go to
step 7. Otherwise, determine the desired
deflection or rotation of the frame by applying
the appropriate virtual work expression. End
the analysis at this stage.
7. If necessary, divide the members of the
frame into segments so that the real and
virtual axial forces and AE are constant in
each segment. It is not necessary that these
segments be the same as those used in step
3 for evaluating the virtual internal work due
to bending. It is important, however,-
 That the same sign convention be used for
both the real axial force, F, and the virtual
axial force, f, in a particular segment.
8. Determine the desired deflection or rotation
of the frame by applying the appropriate
virtual work expression.
𝑳
𝒎𝑴
𝟏 (∆) = න 𝒅𝒙
𝟎 𝑬𝑰
𝑳
𝒎𝒐 𝑴
𝟏(𝜽) = න 𝒅𝒙
𝑬𝑰
𝟎
Examples :
•Determine the rotation of joint C of the frame
shown below, using virtual work method
• Solution :
The real and virtual system are
shown in figure below respectively. The x
coordinates used for determining the
bending moment equations for the three
segments of the frame, AB, BC, and CD,
are also shown in these figures. The
equations for M and mo obtained for the
three segments are tabulated in table
1.1. the rotation of joint C of the frame
can now be determined by applying the
virtual work expression.
Solving for real system – M

Solving for the reactions :

∑𝑀𝐴 = 0 +
↻20(12)(6)+180(4)-
Dy(12)=0
Dy=180 kN ñ↑
∑𝐹𝑦 = 0 +↑180-20(12)+Ay=0
Ay=60 kN ñ↑
∑𝐹𝑥 = 0 +→180-Ax=0
Ax=180 kN ñ←
For segment AB
∑𝑀𝐵 = 0 +↻
M = 180x
For segment CB
∑𝑀𝐵 = 0 +↻180x-180(x-4) = 0
180x-180x-720 = 0
M = 720

For segment DC
20(𝑥)2
∑𝑀𝐶 = 0 +↻180x - 2 = 0
M = 180x – 10x2
Solving for virtual system – mo

Solving for the reactions :

∑𝑀𝐴 = 0 +↻1-Dy(12) = 0
Dy = 1/12 kN ñ↑
∑𝐹𝑦 = 0 +↑1/12 - Ay=0
Ay = 1/12 kN ñ↓
∑𝐹𝑥 = 0 +→ Ax = 0
 For segment DC
∑𝑀𝐶 = 0 +↻1/12(x) = 0
x/12 = 0

For segment CB
∑𝑀𝐵 = 0 +↻
mo = 0

For segment AB
∑𝑀𝐵 = 0 +↻
mo= 0
Table 1.1
X coordinate
SEGMENT ORIGIN LIMITS M (kN-m) mo (kN-m)
AB A 0-4 180x 0
CB C 0-4 720 0
DC D 0-12 180x-10x2 x/12

𝒎𝒐 𝑴
𝟏 𝜽𝒄 = ෍ න 𝒅𝒙
𝑬𝑰
𝟏 𝟏𝟐 𝒙
= න 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒙 − 𝟏𝟎𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝑬𝑰 𝟎 𝟏𝟐
𝟒𝟑𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝑵𝟐 ∙ 𝒎𝟑
(𝟏 𝒌𝑵 ∙ 𝒎) 𝜽𝒄 =
𝑬𝑰
Therefore,
𝟒𝟑𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝑵𝟐 ∙ 𝒎𝟑
𝜽𝒄 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟔 𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎−𝟔

𝜽𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟔 𝒓𝒂𝒅 ∠ ↷
2. Determine the horizontal displacement of point C
on the frame shown in the figure below. Take
E = 29(103) ksi and I = 600 in4 for both member
Solving for real system - M

Solving for the reactions :

∑𝑀𝐴 = 0 +↻40(5)-Cy(8)=0
Cy = 25 kñ↑
∑𝐹𝑦 = 0 +↑25-Ay=0
Ay = 25kñ↓
∑𝐹𝑥 = 0 +→40-Ax=0
Ax = 40 k ñ←
For segment AB :
∑𝑀𝐵 = 0 +↻
40x-4x(x/2) = 0
M = 40x-2x2

For segment CB :
∑𝑀𝐵 = 0 +↻
M = 25x
Solving for virtual system – m

Solving for the reactions :

∑𝑀𝐴 = 0 +↻1(10)-Cy(8)=0
Cy = 1.25 kñ↑
∑𝐹𝑦 = 0 +↑25-Ay=0
Ay = 1.25 kñ↓
∑𝐹𝑥 = 0 +→40-Ax=0
Ax = 40 k ñ←
For segment AB
∑𝑀𝐵 = 0 +↻
m = 1x

For segment CB
∑𝑀𝐵 = 0 +↻
m = 1.25x
 X coordinate
SEGMENT ORIGIN LIMITS M (kN-m) m (kN-m)
AB A 0-10 40x-2x2 1x
CB C 0-8 25x 1.25x

𝒎𝑴
𝟏 ∆𝒄 = ෍ න 𝒅𝒙
𝑬𝑰
𝟏𝟎 𝟖
𝟏𝒙(𝟒𝟎𝒙 − 𝟐𝒙𝟐 ) 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝒙(𝟐𝟓𝒙)
= න 𝒅𝒙 + න 𝒅𝒙
𝟎 𝑬𝑰 𝟎 𝑬𝑰
𝟐
𝟏𝟑, 𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟕 𝒌 ∙ 𝒇𝒕𝟑
∆𝒄 =
𝑬𝑰
Therefore,
𝟏𝟑, 𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟕 𝒌𝟐 ∙ 𝒇𝒕𝟑
∆𝒄 = 𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟑 𝒇𝒕
𝒌 𝒊𝒏
𝟐𝟗 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝟐 ((𝟏𝟐)𝟐 𝟐 ) 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒊𝒏𝟒 (𝒇𝒕𝟒 /((𝟏𝟐)𝟒 𝒊𝒏𝟒 )
𝒊𝒏 𝒇𝒕

∆𝒄 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟔 𝒊𝒏
[Link] the tangential
rotation at point C of the frame
shown in the following figure.
Take E= 200 Gpa, I= 15(106)
mm4
Solving for real system - M

For segment CB
∑𝑀𝐵 = 0 +↻
M= -2.5x

For segment AB
∑𝑀𝐵 = 0 +↻
𝑴 = 𝟕. 𝟓
Solving for virtual system - mo

For segment CB :
∑𝑀𝐵 = 0 +↻
M= −1

For segment AB :
∑𝑀𝐵=0+↻
𝑴=𝟏
 X coordinate
SEGMENT ORIGIN LIMITS M (kN-m) mo (kN-m)
AB A 0-2 7.5 1
CB C 0-3 -2.5x -1

𝒎𝒐 𝑴
𝟏 𝜽𝒄 = ෍ න 𝒅𝒙
𝑬𝑰
𝟑 𝟐
−𝟏 (−𝟐. 𝟓𝒙) (𝟏)(𝟕. 𝟓)
= න 𝒅𝒙 + න 𝒅𝒙
𝟎 𝑬𝑰 𝟎 𝑬𝑰
𝟐𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝑵𝟐 ∙ 𝒎𝟐
(𝟏 𝒌𝑵 ∙ 𝒎) 𝜽𝒄 =
𝑬𝑰
Therefore,
𝟐𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝑵𝟐 ∙ 𝒎𝟐
𝜽𝒄 =
𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟐 𝟏𝟓 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎𝒎𝟒 (𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝒎𝟒 /𝒎𝒎𝟒

𝜽𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟕𝟓 𝒓𝒂𝒅 ∠