Chapter 4

OBJECTIVES
On completion of this chapter, students should be able to:
• discuss the elements and characteristics of culture in the Caribbean;
• discuss Caribbean cultural diversity and change;
• discuss issues related to Caribbean popular culture.
Plantation Society and Culture
Contemporary Caribbean society is relatively young, as compared to African or
European societies.
In addition, the Caribbean did not evolve in the same manner as these larger
societies. According
to Orlando Patterson, the Caribbean was artificially created to serve the economic
needs of the
European colonists. To achieve this end, people of different nationalities were
removed
from their homelands, forcibly in many cases, and brought to the Caribbean to work
on the
sugar plantations. The various groups of people were thus brought to the region
mainly for
economic reasons. The resultant demographic changes had an irreversible social and
cultural
impact as very heterogeneous populations were consequently created in respective
territories.
This artificial creation of the Caribbean society was therefore due to the
plantation system.
Caribbean history has a long and tumultuous colonial past, with the plantation
being the
dominant form of economic and social organization, thereby resulting in a rich
cultural legacy.
The history of the Caribbean is premised upon two Ss: sugar and slavery. The
plantation often
relied on some form of forced or cheap labour. This resulted in the near total
destruction of
the indigenous population and the eventual importation of various groups of people
into the
Caribbean to work on these plantations. All these groups, especially those who
entered the region
by force, had to reconstruct elements of their culture in order to survive.
Colonialism therefore
created a culturally diverse region with various ethnic groups being brought to the
Caribbean,
each with its own language, religion and way of life. This section examines the
various groups
and their contribution to the cultural pluralism that exists in the Caribbean.
Culture in the Caribbean | 107
The Indigenous People
Prior to the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the West Indies in 1492, Amerindian
tribes
populated the region. The arrival of the Spaniards and the establishment of
colonies in the
Caribbean represented the beginning of a new era. The settled and stable lives of
the indigenous
people were disrupted irreversibly by the Spanish arrival; the clash of cultures
between the
Amerindians and the Spaniards resulted in the physical and cultural genocide of the
Amerindians.
Columbus began the practice of granting Spanish settlers some Tainos to work for
them.
This was known as the repartimiento system, the beginning of Amerindian
enslavement. This
was a system of forced labour that was imposed upon the native tribes of the
region. Most of the
Spaniards came to the ‘New World’ in search of quick riches; they had no sympathy
for
the peaceful Tainos. The Amerindians were overworked and poorly fed, and a large
number
died as a result.
Apart from the Tainos, we also hear about another major indigenous group, referred
to as the
Caribs by the Europeans. According to many historians, these people referred to
themselves as
the Kalinago. The literature also mentions the ‘Black Caribs’ of Belize also called
the Garifuna.
According to Lennox Honeychurch, the words Kalinago and Karifuna (Garifuna) are
today widely
used by anthropologists and historians to describe the Caribs.
With the almost total elimination of the native population, the Europeans obtained
the necessary
labour importing the slaves from Africa. In the ensuing years, this led to a
significant demographic
change since descendants of Africans eventually comprised the largest group in the
Caribbean.
The Africans
There was great demand for sugar in Europe, and the Caribbean had the fertile soil
and tropical
weather conditions to cultivate sugar cane. Since the British West Indies
cultivated sugar
on a very large scale and it was a labour intensive enterprise, there was a great
demand for
labour. This problem was solved with the introduction of African slaves in large
numbers to
work on the sugar plantations.
The sugar plantation was a separate community made up of different groups of
people, the main
aim being to maximize profits. There was a rigid class structure on the plantation,
and colour was
the main determinant of social status. The two main groups were the European whites
and the
African slaves, but subsequently a third group emerged called the mulattoes or
coloureds. Also
referred to as the ‘browns’, this group resulted from the sexual encounters between
Europeans
and enslaved Africans.
108 | Sociology for Caribbean Students
During slavery, the Europeans viewed the culture of the Africans in a rather
ethnocentric
manner. On the plantations, slaves were subjected to acculturation, as they were
not allowed
to openly observe their ancestral religions. Since the African religions were
viewed as pagan
many of the enslaved were converted to Christianity. Sir Charles Metcalfe (Ryan
1991) noted
that the dress of ex-slaves rivaled the clothes of the planter class. Best (1968)
claims that they
even aspired to the culture of the Europeans.
Slavery was abolished between 1834 and 1863 (1834 in the Anglophone islands, 1848
in
the Francophone islands, and 1863 in the Dutch islands), and the ex-slaves were no
longer
willing to work on the estates (Augier et al. 1960). They therefore cultivated
other crops, and
this led to the development of the Caribbean peasantry. Some of the ex-slaves also
worked
as craftsmen. The planters were unable to attract the ex-slaves back to the
plantation. The
planters felt that they could not pay higher wages without significant reduction in
profits,
and the solution was therefore to import large numbers of immigrant workers from
abroad,
namely East Asia.
The Chinese
Chinese immigrants were brought to work on the plantations under the indentureship
system.
Only a few of them came at first, but from 1852 large numbers of Chinese immigrants
were
brought into the Caribbean. By the year 1893 an estimated 20,000 Chinese immigrants
had
arrived in the British West Indies, with the majority going to British Guiana,
Jamaica and
Trinidad. There were problems associated with the importation of Chinese labourers,
since
the cost of transporting the Chinese was very high and they were not particularly
suited to
plantation work. The planters then turned to India for labour.
The East Indians
It was the Indians who ultimately provided the solution to the shortage of labour
for the
plantation. The first shipload reached British Guiana in 1838. In 1845 the
importation of
Indian labourers had begun on a large scale and, apart from a break between 1848
and 1851,
it continued until 1917. The Indians were cheaper and more dependable workers
unlike the
Chinese who generally left estate work as soon as the opportunity arose. By 1917,
over 416,000
East Indian immigrants had entered the British West Indies with most of them going
to British
Guiana, Trinidad and Suriname. Many restrictions were placed on the indentured
labourers; for
instance, they could not leave the plantations without certified permission in the
form of a
pass. They were not allowed to stay away from work, even when sick, as they could
be arrested
and imprisoned. Because of the harsh conditions and physical punishment, some
described
Culture in the Caribbean | 109
indentureship as a ‘new system of slavery’ (Tinker 1993). Although the East Indians
were
allowed to practise their culture, they were sometimes perceived as ‘pagans’ and
‘heathens’.
They kept to themselves and resisted assimilation into the culture of the wider
society.
Each new immigrant group introduced its cultural values and attitudes to add to the
already
diverse cultural milieu of the region. The plantation system also created a complex
system of
social stratification, especially in British Guiana, Trinidad and Suriname, where
large numbers
of immigrants had arrived, especially East Indians and Chinese. Today, in these
societies, race
and ethnicity create divisions; there is sometimes hostility between ethnic groups,
especially
in Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana. The legacy of colonialism and the plantation
system
continue to influence culture and identity in Caribbean society. There are three
major theories
that attempt to explain Caribbean society: the Plantation Society Model, the Plural
Society
Model and the Creole Society Model.
The Plantation Society Theory
The plantation system played a dominant role in the economic, social, political and
cultural
life of the Caribbean. George Beckford (1972) saw the plantation system as a total
economic
institution, where ‘the internal and external dimensions of the plantation system
dominate the
countries’ economic, social and political structure and their relation with the
rest of the world.’
By this, Beckford means that the plantation experience has transcended the
boundaries of the
plantation and its features manifest themselves in each aspect of society.
Plantations have not only
been a product of metropolitan capital, but they have also produced mono-crop
cultivation for
overseas markets. The distinct features of the plantation society are as follows:
• the prevalence of mono-crop cultivation
• the marginalization of the peasantry and focus on large producers
• dependency on foreign investors to aid Caribbean development
• little control of the price at which crops are sold on the international
markets, since
international forces influence prices
• demand for foreign products at the expense of locally produced goods
• social stratification based on factors such as race and colour
The plantation played the principal role in the development of Caribbean culture.
The
islands were developed where the demand for foreign products dominated, and vast
amounts of
goods were brought in from abroad to satisfy the needs of the people. Even
technology was
110 | Sociology for Caribbean Students
imported, and today we continue to see a high demand for many aspects of foreign
culture.
Some examples include television programming, food, and music.
The plantation system was an all-pervasive design, which governed the lives of all
members who
were engaged in production. Horowitz (1971) sees it as a societal design that
perpetuates a
society divided into segments: one large and unfree, and another that is small and
free,
and which controls power in the society. Beckford notes that in the twentieth
century, long
after emancipation, Caribbean society was still modelled along the lines of the
plantation. Best
(1968) comments on the lack of social integration and sees the populations that
were brought
from all over the world, existing as a plural society, with no basis for
integration.
M.G. Smith (1965), writing about Jamaican society, also observed that nationalism
was slow to
develop, and that the abolition of slavery ‘freed a race, but failed to create a
society’.
The Plural Society Thesis
M.G. Smith applied the plural society thesis to Caribbean societies. The original
concept of the
plural society was outlined in the work of J.S. Furnivall, a Dutch economist. Smith
believed
that ‘people’s culture forms the matrix of their social structure.’ In his model,
Smith explains that
a common system of basic institutions is shared in homogeneous societies. However,
in plural
societies, there are alternative and exclusive institutions that exist and, as a
result, the basic
institutions are not shared. Smith does not see such plural societies as being
stratified by
class, but there may be internal classification among the various races. In
Caribbean societies,
he sees the major cultural elements, the whites, Africans, East Indians, and
Chinese, each
practising different forms of the common institutions such as marriage, family and
religion.
Smith (1965) examined Grenadian society, where he identified two sections of the
society: the
whites and the blacks. He also studied Jamaican society in which he identified
sections in
society such as the whites, blacks and browns (an intermediate category). In
Jamaican society,
Smith identified alternative forms of all institutions in the society. In looking
at the family, he
recognized other forms besides the nuclear family.
Smith’s thesis identifies the following:
1. Homogeneous societies are those with one set of institutions, whilst those with
alternative
institutions are heterogeneous.
2. Those societies where the basic institutions (family, education and religion)
are not shared
are plural societies.
Culture in the Caribbean | 111
3. The cultural sections in the Caribbean are whites, browns and blacks, with East
Indians
and Chinese, in some territories.
Smith’s plural society thesis has been criticized by Braithwaite (1960), who
redefines a plural
society as ‘one composed of such varying groups, each with its own subculture, that
only a few
cultural symbols are shared by all.’ Braithwaite criticizes Smith’s theory on the
following grounds:
1. that every society is ‘pluralistic’, in that there is no ‘homogeneous’ society;
2. that distinguishing between plural societies and homogeneous societies is
difficult;
3. that plural societies are not always unstable; societies may possess ‘a rich
cultural
variation’ within a ‘highly unified national society’;
4. that societies should not be defined in cultural terms. He speaks of shared
values: universalachievement values as opposed to particularistic-ascriptive
values. Universal-achievement
values are those to which all the groups aspire, whereas particularistic-ascriptive
are those
values common to a specific group in society. Braithwaite was of the opinion that
the
universalistic-achievement values shared by groups in society are those values that
hold
the society together, as in Trinidad and Tobago with the East Indians and the
Africans.
Carl Stone’s (1973) critique of Smith’s thesis was based on a survey which Stone
conducted
in Jamaica. According to his critique:
1. The differences are not between the cultural sections, but have a material base.
These
differences are related to income and resources.
2. The economy and the occupational structure should form the basis for any
analysis.
3. Respondents saw themselves as belonging to ‘classes’ and not to ‘cultural
sections’. They
were of the opinion that they belonged to one of the upper, middle, working and
lower
classes.
Susan Craig (1981) has criticized Smith’s thesis for being unable to explain social
change, especially
cultural change. For Craig, Smith sees the social institutions as being ossified
and impermeable
to change. However, the composition of the population of Trinidad and Tobago
indicates
a growing ‘mixed’ category.
The Creole Society Theory
This theory originated with Caribbean literary scholar Edward Kamau Brathwaite.
Creolization
is a process of change and adaptation that occurs over time. In the Caribbean, the
mixture of
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languages, religious rituals, musical expressions, cuisine and people, represent
the Creolization
of Caribbean culture and society. Creolization involves both acculturation and
interculturation.
As stated earlier, acculturation is a process in which contacts between different
cultural groups
lead to the acquisition of new cultural patterns by the subordinate groups. On the
other hand,
interculturation refers to the mutual, symbiotic exchange of cultural traits.
Plantation society fostered assimilation from the day of ‘discovery’, as the
Europeans suppressed
the cultural beliefs and practices of all groups they encountered. When differing
cultural traits
diffuse into a society on a massive scale, the culture of the subordinate group is
significantly
changed. However, acculturation does not necessarily result in new, alien cultural
traits completely
replacing the old ones. There often is a syncretism, or an amalgamation of
traditional
and introduced traits. The new traits may be blended with or worked into the
indigenous
cultural patterns to make them more acceptable.
Creole Society Theory Applied to the Caribbean
• Creolization is reinforced by a paradigm of white dominance and black
subservience.
• In the Caribbean, different groups or cultures are placed in a
superior/inferior
relationship to each other. This relationship has been Eurocentric in nature: the
culture
of the whites was perceived as respectable and acceptable, whereas that of the
blacks
was seen as inferior or unacceptable.
• Relationships are based upon a colour/class hierarchy.
• Acculturation is determined by the Eurocentric superiority in society.
Dominant
colonial powers dictated the official cultures (language, religion or dress) in the
colonies.
• Native and acquired cultures are dependent on links with the homeland.
• Creolization applied mainly to the African–European relationship, which was
true
until the mid-nineteenth century. Subsequently, one witnessed the arrival of many
other groups.
• Creolization presents a threat to Caribbean groups who are trying to
preserve their
culture and heritage by excluding others.
• Among the reasons for Creolization were adaptation and survival.
Creolization
and indigenization led to the creation of new cultural forms.
Culture in the Caribbean | 113
Weaknesses
• It considers mainly the European-African relationship, and has largely
ignored the
other groups in the Caribbean such as East Indians or Chinese. For instance, in
Trinidad and Tobago, there exists a strong East Indian presence in the society,
which
has had a significant impact on the society’s national culture.
• The theory does not give enough weight to macro/structural factors in
explaining the
shaping of society.
COLONIALISM AND CULTURE
A strong African influence pervades music, dance, the arts, literature, speech
forms, and religious
practices in Latin America and the Caribbean. Africans, whether as enslaved peoples
or as free
immigrants, brought a variety of African cultural influences to the New World. The
experience
of slavery made it difficult to continue their ancestral patterns of living. In
addition, they
came from different tribes in Africa and were themselves a diverse group, but
wherever
possible, they did their best to reconcile reality with their beliefs. Like all
other immigrant
groups, they abandoned some aspects of their culture, modified others, and created
new forms.
As discussed earlier, this adaptation to local conditions is called Creolization.
The number
of Africans, their proportion in local society, and the length of time they spent
in any one place
were crucial to the development of an Afro-Caribbean culture. Though their culture
has largely
been suppressed, a strong African sensibility persisted.
African immigrants were often marginalized, having to deal with a dominant European
society
and culture. The African communities survived, and in some instances proliferated,
but they
did so against the stiff and relentless competition of the European or ‘high’
culture. Aspects of
the African ethnic subculture were eventually adopted by the mainstream. In most
societies of
the Caribbean, the descendants of the Africans formed the majority of the
inhabitants. In the
essentially plantation societies of the Caribbean islands and Guyana, people of
African ancestry
retained considerable control over their daily lives, despite the efforts of the
politically dominant
group to restrain and coerce them. The lack of cultural homogeneity as well as the
paucity of
the plantation elites provided an almost unique opportunity for the African masses
to fashion
their own society and influence the ‘high’ culture.
Caribbean people speak variants of the standard European languages, whether the
spoken
language is English, Spanish, French, or Dutch. The Creole dialect spoken in Haiti,
though
with a largely French vocabulary has a significant African input. It therefore
constitutes a
language of its own. In Curaçao, Aruba, and Bonaire, Papiamento, a blend of Dutch,
Spanish,
114 | Sociology for Caribbean Students
and Portuguese, is one of the official languages. These Creole languages are not
confined to
the poorer, unschooled classes. Creole has now been accorded greater respect in the
literature
and political life of the islands.
Official acceptance modifies some forms of culture, for example, carnival. The
French introduced
carnival around 1785. Alongside their elaborate masked balls, the slaves developed
their own
parallel celebration using African rituals and folklore, but also imitating their
masters’ behaviour.
After emancipation, the freed Africans began to host their own carnival
celebrations in the streets,
and they grew more and more elaborate. For some time, the black population
continued the
annual celebration of this carnival; the upper classes deplored carnival and tried
to destroy it as a
public festival. By the early twentieth century, however, it had attracted all
classes and races, and
currently it has official government support in The Bahamas, Cuba, Trinidad and
Tobago,
and Brazil. Although folk festivals have earned respectability and their
festivities are open to
all races and classes, the chief participants, for many aspects of these festivals,
are still the
African-Caribbean people. In addition to the Carnival in Trinidad and Tobago, this
also
applies to the Jonkonnu (John Canoe) in Jamaica and other territories. In some
cases, however,
the transition from low to high culture has obscured the origins.
Caribbean Culture: Past and Contemporary
The term ‘Caribbean’ conjures up in the minds of outsiders, images of carnival,
Voodoo, calypso,
beaches, palm trees, Rastafarians, reggae and rum. These stereotypical images are
due, in part, to
the Caribbean governments’ proliferation of avid tourism campaigns often void of
any historical
roots, the unwillingness of the Europeans to learn about and respect the psyche of
other peoples,
and the acceptance and perpetuation of these stereotypes by Caribbean citizens
themselves.
Further, the adherence to the above stereotypes serves another agenda, whether
intentional
or not: it helps to conceal the multiplicity of interacting cultures in the
Caribbean, and the
inherent conflicts in these cultures competing for legitimacy.
Culture in the Caribbean is multifaceted, dynamic, and rich. At a broad level,
culture in the
Caribbean has emerged as a result of the fusion between European and African
cultures,
and a later blending with cultural elements from Asia. At a more definitive level,
culture in the
Caribbean spans, among others, popular, folk, resistance, religious, and class
cultures. It is
the popular culture of the Caribbean that is amplified, while resistance culture,
for example,
which has played a pivotal role in the emancipation of enslaved Africans and the
fight of the
underclass, receives little fanfare. It is the latter culture that forged people
like Marcus Garvey,
Paul Bogle, Uriah Butler, Maurice Bishop, and Walter Rodney.
One of the primary motivating forces behind early resistance culture among African-
Caribbean
peoples was the search for an African identity. Sometimes slaves ran away and
formed their own
Culture in the Caribbean | 115
communities. In Hispaniola, these ‘maroons’ even intermarried with the Arawaks.
There
were maroon communities in all the territories, but they were hunted down and
destroyed. The
only communities that survived were in Jamaica, Hispaniola, Cuba and Suriname
(Greenwood
and Swamber 2003).
The Maroons in Jamaica, Saint Kitts, and Barbados, for example, waged 50 years of
resistance
against plantation owners, and formed their own communities with their own
leadership. In
addition to the relentless pressure on the sugar plantations from the Maroons,
there were numerous
other rebellions. Toussaint L’Ouverture led Haiti to independence in a war against
the French.
In Jamaica, Sam Sharpe led a plantation uprising in 1831, protesting the harsh
treatment
under slavery. Paul Bogle led the Morant Bay Rebellion in Jamaica in 1865. All
these individuals
were protesting dehumanization and acculturation brought about by the European
Slave Trade.
Even after the Africans were freed, they continued their resistance movement,
refusing to work
for former slave owners, in an attempt to destroy the plantation economy.
While there were several other bloody uprisings throughout the Caribbean, Africans
also waged
their resistance to slavery and cultural domination on other fronts. They fought
back through
music, to express anger and frustration. The blaring of the abeng (cow horn) was a
call to take
up arms. Drumming was used to dispel the forces perpetrating self-hatred and a
rejection of
Africa. And though the drumming was forbidden, Africans resisted vehemently. They
adapted
European music to suit their own needs, being forced to participate in it. Several
forms of folk
music in the Caribbean reflect the fusion of African and European musical forms:
the beguine
in Saint Lucia, mento in Jamaica, salsa in Cuba, and bossa nova in Brazil, are all
examples
of this fusion.
Several other musical forms have emerged. Calypso, which originated in Trinidad and
Tobago,
provided, and continues to provide, an excellent vehicle for social commentary.
Jamaican reggae
music has its roots in the plight of the underclass, and is by far the most
internationally known
form of Caribbean music. Artistes like Bob Marley, Bunny Wailer, Rita Marley, Judy
Mowatt
and Steel Pulse have all been international ambassadors of reggae music. Reggae
music is also
at the root of protest culture in Jamaica, as well as in some other parts of the
Caribbean,
England, and North America. It is largely the Jamaican populace in those countries
that help
to maintain the use of reggae in protesting racism and other forms of social
injustice in
England, Canada, and the United States.
Afro-Trinidadians in the urban areas of Trinidad invented steel pan music, which
was
initially dismissed by the upper class as noise. The instrument made from the steel
drum has
its roots in the stick-fighting tradition. Stick-fighting was a way for Africans to
demonstrate and
maintain their skill and prowess. When they participated in Carnival processions,
Africans
performed stick-fighting rituals. The Africans also used their sticks to provide
rhythmic sound.
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To the slave-owners this was unsettling, as the sticks were effective weapons. This
was soon
banned, and the Africans had to find other forms of rhythm. By hammering the
surfaces of
drums and dividing the sections to produce different sounds, the steel pan was
created. To the
Afro-Trinidadian, the steel drum made a powerful political statement – it
symbolized African
creativity, power, and ownership.
The Rastafarian movement in Jamaica is another popular form of protest culture.
Rastafarians
drew their inspiration from the teachings of Marcus Garvey. Garvey preached that
black people
should return to Africa (Ethiopia) to reunite with their ancestors. Garvey also
prophesied
that a black king would one day be crowned in Africa. This prophecy was fulfilled
in the
1930s with the crowning of Ras Tafari (crowned Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia).
The
two most basic beliefs of Rastafarians (or Rastas) are first that Ras Tafari (Haile
Selassie) is
the Messiah and second that Africa (Ethiopia in particular) is the Promised Land.
Though
his movement was extremely popular with the working class, Europeans and those
Africans who
had by then become assimilated into European cultural values despised it.
Africans in the Caribbean fought to maintain their cultural traditions by forming
clubs called
Nations in all the islands. Each nation had to pledge to preserve African language,
culture,
religion, and music. As in the case of North America, much of the African
resistance movement
was steeped in religion. Despite the attempts at Christianization, Africans were
determined
to have their religions survive. The Orisha in Trinidad, Voodun in Haiti, Santeria
in Cuba,
Puerto Rico, Brazil and the Dominican Republic, Kumina in Jamaica, and Umbanda and
Candomble in Brazil, are still surviving today as a result of this resistance. It
is still possible to
find a midnight ceremony in progress in parts of Cuba and Haiti against the
backdrop of
African drumming.
The church played a strong role in many uprisings. Sam Sharpe, Paul Bogle and
George William
Gordon, were all Baptist preachers. The Africans formed their own churches in
resistance to the
mainstream churches. In addition, churches provided an effective meeting place for
Africans.
African-Caribbean resistance culture further manifests itself in educational
issues. Today, there
is a major drive towards the reclamation of history and vocabulary. In post-
emancipation Haiti,
a group of African writers formed what they called the Griots (Storytellers)
society. They
were determined to erase the negative images of the African painted by Europeans.
A number of languages and dialects evolved in the Caribbean as a result of the
imposition of the
slave-owner’s language on the African. Kweyol, which represents a fusion of African
and French
(not broken French as many style it), is spoken in the French Antilles (Haiti,
Martinique,
Guadeloupe, and French Guiana in South America). In the English colonies, a fusion
of African,
and English (or French in some cases) led to other Creoles being developed,
sometimes referred
Culture in the Caribbean | 117
to as patois. In the Dutch Antilles, the fusion of African, Spanish, Portuguese and
Dutch is
called Papiamento. Papiamento, Patois and Kweyol were all perceived as inferior, as
they represented
to the European elite the bastardization of their language. Class-seeking Africans
and the mixed
African-Europeans also despised those languages. Nonetheless, the Africans
recognized the
power in them. Kweyol, for example, played a very important role in the Haitian
revolution.
These languages now form the vernacular of these islands because of the persistence
of the
people who spoke them. Today, these languages enjoy prominence, and in some places,
such
as in the French Antilles, and the Dutch Antilles, there are government-sponsored
attempts
to document the language, and to create dictionaries. In that regard, the Dutch
Antilles are
further ahead.
Today, resistance culture continues to describe a major part of the lives of
Africans in the Diaspora.
Many of the injustices faced by our African ancestors in the Caribbean and in North
America
are still being dealt with today. The use of churches, the formation of societies,
the pens
of our writers (Griots), the use of vernacular poetry, calypso, and reggae music
are all elements
of the contemporary resistance movement. This bears striking resemblance to the
resistance
movement during the enslavement period. Though some aspects of early resistance
culture
have crossed over to popular culture (namely, carnival, calypso, and reggae), these
vehicles often
reflect a duality. They are in fact still used to defy much of the colonial baggage
Caribbean
people still carry.
Activity 4.1
1. Match the following names with the statements below:
• M.G. Smith
• J.S. Furnivall
• Toussaint L’Ouverture
• E.K. Brathwaite
• Paul Bogle
• George Beckford
a. was the first to develop the concept of a plural society.
b. introduced the plural society theory to the English-speaking Caribbean.
c. associated with the Creole society theory.
d. associated with the plantation society theory.
118 | Sociology for Caribbean Students
e. led Haiti to independence in a war against the French.
f. led the Morant Bay Rebellion in Jamaica in 1865.
2. Discuss the ways in which the culture of a named Caribbean territory has been
influenced
by any two groups brought to the region during the period of colonialism.
East Indian Culture
East Indians were introduced mainly into Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana and Suriname.
A few
were introduced into other territories such as Jamaica, Grenada, Guadeloupe and
Saint Lucia.
The Indians were to replace the labour that was previously provided by the enslaved
Africans. The
majority of Indians came from North India, more specifically from the Gangetic
Plains region of
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Oudh. They came under what was known as the
‘Indentureship’ system.
Under their contracts, the Indians were free to leave when their contracts ended;
however, the
majority chose to stay in the Caribbean.
The Indians were located on settlements surrounding the plantations and they were
allowed to
continue many of their ancestral traditions. These included East Indian family
patterns, Indian
culinary practices, Indian fashions and patterns of worship. They were also allowed
to establish
both temples and mosques shortly after their arrival in the West Indies. East
Indians were allowed
more opportunities than the African slaves to retain their ancestral culture.
However, with time,
their culture has inevitably undergone change and adaptation.
The most significant change among Indians occurred through the efforts of Christian
missionaries,
especially the Canadian Mission. Churches and schools were established in Indian
areas, leading
to substantial conversion to Presbyterianism. In Trinidad and Tobago, many Indians
attained
social mobility through educational attainment at the schools of this mission.
East Indians were marginalized in Caribbean society, but contact with their
ancestral homeland
was maintained through music, movies and missionaries. Indians have contributed to
the rich
cultural landscape of the Caribbean in several ways: through Indian movies, Indian
music, food,
clothing, and religious festivals.
Caribbean Popular Culture
Popular culture includes a range of expressions of creativity that are accessible
to, produced
by, and enjoyed by the majority of a society. Popular culture has been one
important means by
which, even during colonialism and slavery, people were able to express their
identity. Popular
Culture in the Caribbean | 119
culture helped to preserve parts of the heritage of the various ethnic groups that
were brought
into the region. Caribbean popular culture in recent years is being marketed all
over the world.
Calypso, carnival, cricket, reggae, literature and the steel pan, have not gone
unnoticed
across the globe. Most aspects of Caribbean popular culture originated among the
grassroots in
society; but within recent times, a greater appreciation of Caribbean popular
culture has
developed among all strata of society.
Carnival
Carnival, as celebrated in the Caribbean, originated in Trinidad and Tobago, and
has been
exported to other territories. However, though always a celebration of joy,
abandonment and
‘freeing up’ oneself, the format for the festival is somewhat different in specific
territories, based
on their people’s specific interests and experiences. Carnival has also been
promoted overseas by
West Indians in cities such as Montreal, New York, Toronto, and London.
As stated earlier, Carnival originated among the French planters. The word carnival
comes from
the words carne and vale, meaning farewell to flesh. Carnival is celebrated on the
Monday and
Tuesday before Ash Wednesday, which is the beginning of the Lenten season. The
French and
Spanish played the major part in Carnival until 1838 when slavery was abolished. It
is believed
that after the abolition of slavery, the slaves began to organize their own
celebrations. Today, the
celebrations include very elaborate masquerade bands; people spend exhorbitant sums
of money
to acquire costumes. This is a far cry from the origins of the celebrations, when
it was the formerly
enslaved who were engaged in the festivities in the streets. In the past, the steel
bands also played
the major role on the actual day when they played in the streets. Today, the steel
bands have lost
some ground to the sound systems of disc jockeys who blast music from large trucks
in the streets.
The Trinidad and Tobago Carnival is characterized by several competitions, which
begin weeks
before the actual two days of celebrations. Competitions include Parade of the
Bands, Calypso
competitions, Steel band competitions and many other events. Many tourists come to
participate
in the celebrations, which have become a major source of revenue for many Caribbean
territories.
Music
Music in the Caribbean has been following different trends. It is one of the most
popular
forms of expression and is used by artistes to voice their opinions on the
contentions in
local politics, on other current issues in their countries, or on global issues.
Trinidad and
Tobago is well-known for its calypso, while Jamaica is famous for reggae, and
Martinique
and Guadeloupe for zouk.
120 | Sociology for Caribbean Students
Trinidad and Tobago’s calypso has developed out of the rhythm of African songs that
the enslaved
sang on the plantations as they worked. It is believed that the origin of the word
‘calypso’
was the African word ‘caiso’ which means ‘bravo’, a word that was used to praise a
good
singer. Since the slaves were not allowed to talk as they worked, calypso was used
as a form
of communication. The calypsoes were sung in French creole dialect, which is also
known as
patois. After slavery, the tradition continued and grew into an attraction for
tourists. The
musical accompaniment for calypso traditionally came from bamboo and rattles, but
today it
includes drums, guitars, brass, steel pans and other instruments. Today, calypsoes
are sung in
calypso tents that have become very popular around carnival time. In these tents,
calypsonians
sing about current events, politics, and other issues of national and international
concern.
Calypso has played an important part in the life of the African slaves and their
descendants.
It has always been a source of expression – both political and social. Today it is
the subject
of much debate. It is the subject of seminars in Trinidad and Tobago and is now
being studied
at the university level. Famous calypsonians in Trinidad and Tobago include the
Mighty Sparrow,
Lord Kitchener, and David Rudder.
Calypso, like most art forms, has been subject to evolution. Today, different forms
of calypso also
incorporate other musical sounds such as American Soul and Disco, reggae and pop
music. These
influences are evident in many calypsos. Other musical art forms that have evolved
from the
calypso are soca, chutney, soca-chutney and other variations. These are relatively
new art
forms and are really versions of calypso in which new influences have been
incorporated.
The Mighty Sparrow or Slinger Francisco, also known as ‘the Birdie’, is sometimes
referred to
as the ‘Calypso King of the World’. He was born on July 9, 1935, in Grenada, and
his family
migrated to Trinidad and Tobago when he was just a little over one year old. He has
won many
competitions and the University of the West Indies has also awarded him an honorary
doctorate.
Reggae and Rastafarianism
Rastafarianism is rooted in the principles of black self-reliance and self-
empowerment, combined
with a ‘back to Africa’ doctrine. Although Rastafarianism has inspired people since
the 1930s, it
became more widely known internationally in the 1970s with the reggae music of Bob
Marley.
Marley is credited with capturing the essence of Rastafarianism in his lyrics and
introducing
these principles to the world.
Today, reggae is very popular throughout the world and its beat has been
incorporated into
many American and British songs. Bob Marley, an ardent follower of Rastafarianism,
contributed
significantly to the popularity of reggae.
Culture in the Caribbean | 121
Rastafarianism soon became an official religion in Jamaica and is now recognized
throughout the
Caribbean and the rest of the world. Haile Selassie I, Emperor of Ethiopia, was
acknowledged
as ‘God incarnate’, the ‘Black Messiah’ who would lead the peoples of Africa and
the diaspora to
freedom. He was given the official titles, King of kings, Lord of lords, Conquering
Lion of the
Tribe of Judah and Root of David. These are believed to be the titles of the
returned Messiah
in The New Testament Book of Revelation. Today, Rastafarianism is a cultural force
and has
spread to other parts of the Caribbean and the rest of the world, including Britain
and
the United States.
Literature
Many writers from the Caribbean have made a name for themselves in the wider
literary world.
Among these renowned novelists and writers are the following:
• Erna Brodber of Jamaica
• George Lamming of Barbados
• Wilson Harris of Guyana
• V.S. Naipaul of Trinidad and Tobago
• Derek Walcott of St Lucia
• Caryl Phillips of St Kitts
Many Caribbean writers focus on the folklore of the Caribbean, which is rooted
strongly in
African folklore. The literature that emanates from the Caribbean is largely a
reflection of life
in Caribbean society.
Each society of the Caribbean has its own folklore. Although the folklore of each
territory
is quite different and diverse, its common thread is the allusion to African
culture. In much of
the literature, the focus is on the lifestyles and relationships between the
various groups in the
islands. La Diablesse or the Devil Woman, Anansi the trickster, Spiderman, the
Soucouyant, Old
Higue, Douennes and Papa Bois are well-known characters in Caribbean folklore.
Activity 4.2
State whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE
a. Derek Walcott of Saint Lucia is an important literary figure.
b. Lloyd Best of Trinidad and Tobago is associated with the plantation society
theory.
c. The British introduced Carnival to the Caribbean.
122 | Sociology for Caribbean Students
d. Rastafarianism originated in Africa.
e. African culture had little influence on Caribbean folklore.
f. The ‘zouk’ musical form is associated with Martinique and Guadeloupe.
g. Voodoo, Orisha and Santeria are examples of African-derived religions.
Vodun or Voodoo
Many of the slaves in Haiti came from the Dahomey area in Africa. These slaves
brought their
ancestral religious practices with them, but were forced to practise their rituals
secretly under
the restrictions of slavery. Voodoo believers worshipped several gods, one of whom
was very
powerful and known as Vodun. Voodoo followers attribute powers to their different
gods, and
they call on them for help and protection. The cult includes religious practices,
dances, music,
medicine, art and rituals. Voodoo practices have often been viewed as evil, and
have been met
with opposition from the traditional Christian religions. Santeria, a syncretic
religion of
Caribbean origin, also has roots in Africa. It is a nature religion based on
stones, seashells,
water and herbs. Yoruba slaves brought their deities, called Orishas, with them.
Today, this
religion appears to have similarities to the Catholic religion. In the New World,
Catholic
saints were identified as the Orishas in order to preserve the tradition. It
incorporates the
worship of the Orisha (literally ‘head guardian’) and beliefs of the Yoruba and
Bantu people in
Southern Nigeria, Senegal, and Guinea Coast. These are combined with elements of
worship
from Roman Catholicism.
Cricket
Cricket has been a significant institution in the expression of the culture and
identity of the
English-speaking Caribbean. Cricket was introduced by the British to control and
‘civilize’ the
people of the Caribbean. However, the sport has become a major form of Caribbean
resistance to
the internal and external forces of control. Over the decades, especially from the
mid-twentieth
century, the West Indies cricket team has had a tremendous impact on the
international
game, with their own u n i q u e style, which has been dubbed ‘calypso’ cricket.
Some of the
best players the world has ever seen have originated in the Caribbean: George
Headley, Learie
Constantine, Frank Worrell, Malcolm Marshall, Vivian Richards, and Brian Lara among
others.
According to C.L.R. James (1963), cricket goes ‘beyond a boundary’, as it explains
the life of
the people of the region. The cricket arena is like a carnival stage where the
culture of the
region is expressed through music, dance, and food.
Culture in the Caribbean | 123
Caribbean Culture and Globalization
Globalization and its attendant forces such as trade, technology and travel, made
accessible
a wide range of attractive foreign cultural products. These have the potential to
supersede what
already exists in the Caribbean if allowed to do so. These products are introduced
by the internet,
television programmes, mostly from the United States, the growth of American fast-
food outlets
such as Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC), Burger King (BK), and Subway throughout the
region,
and exposure to the way of life of the metropolitan cities, through ease of travel.
In other words,
the region, through the new forces of globalization, is further challenged to
maintain its
cultural identity.
Conclusion
Caribbean culture is rich and diverse. The culture is steeped in the history of the
region
and involves aspects originating from the different people (Spanish, French, Dutch,
British,
Chinese, Syrians, Portuguese, East Indians and others) who occupied the Caribbean
at one time
or another. Each country’s culture arises out of a common heritage, that of
slavery, yet the culture
of each territory is unique in many ways.
There is no gainsaying that the peoples of the Caribbean have fought hard to
maintain their
cultural heritage despite the forces of colonialism. However, the peoples of the
Caribbean
are now faced with a new cultural challenge in the form of globalization.