INTRODUCTION TO TIMBER

DESIGN
ARC1149
MODULE 01
INTRODUCTION TO TIMBER DESIGN
TIMBER
- One of the oldest materials used in construction
- Sustainable resource
INTRODUCTION TO TIMBER DESIGN
TIMBER
- High strength–weight ratio
- Can carry Tension, Compression, and Bending
- Beams, Columns, Decks, Planks
- Insulating properties for heat and sound
- Aesthetically pleasing
INTRODUCTION TO TIMBER DESIGN
TIMBER
- Can be easily shaped or connected
- Nails
- Screws
- Bolts
- Dowels
- Adhesively bonded together (finger jointing and lamination technology)
INTRODUCTION TO TIMBER DESIGN
MATERIAL COMPARISON

TIMBER STEEL REINFORCED CONCRETE

Homogeneous Homogeneous Non-homogeneous
Least Expensive Most Expensive Average
Least durable Same durability with Most durable
concrete provided
proper detailing and
protection

Renewable yet limited Readily available Most accessible

supply
Easiest to construct
INTRODUCTION TO TIMBER DESIGN

STRUCTURAL TIMBER
- Wood, sawn (milled) from the trunk of a tree that is used as a structural member
INTRODUCTION TO TIMBER DESIGN
ANATOMY OF A TRUNK
INTRODUCTION TO TIMBER DESIGN
CELL STRUCTURE
CLASSIFICATION OF WOOD

SOFTWOODS
- Naked seeds
- Cone–bearing trees
- Retains green leaves throughout the year (evergreen)
- Needle–like leaves

Note that the terms hardwood and softwood have no bearing on the actual softness or hardness of the wood
CLASSIFICATION OF WOOD

SOFTWOODS
- Quick growth rate (can be felled after 30 years)
- Low density timber with relatively low strength
- Poor durability qualities (unless treated with preservatives)
- Readily available and comparatively cheaper

Note that the terms hardwood and softwood have no bearing on the actual softness or hardness of the wood
CLASSIFICATION OF WOOD

HARDWOODS
- Covered seeds
- Broad leaves
- Loose their leaves at the end of every growing season

Note that the terms hardwood and softwood have no bearing on the actual softness or hardness of the wood
CLASSIFICATION OF WOOD

HARDWOODS
- Cell structure is more complex
- Thick–walled cells for support
- Thick–walled cells for food conduction
- Grows at a slower rate (100 years to mature)

Note that the terms hardwood and softwood have no bearing on the actual softness or hardness of the wood
CLASSIFICATION OF WOOD

HARDWOODS
- High density timber and strength
- Less dependence on preservatives for durability qualities
- Darker color
- Expensive in cost

Note that the terms hardwood and softwood have no bearing on the actual softness or hardness of the wood
NATURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TIMBER

KNOTS
Formed by the change of wood structure that occurs where branches grow from the main stem of the
tree. The branch, extending approximately radially in the main trunk, has its own annual rings and
rays, and this local arrangement of cells distort the normal pattern of the main portion of the tree
NATURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TIMBER

KNOTS
- Has a weakening effect
- Fiber discontinuity
- Stress concentration or non-uniform stress distribution
- Tensile stress components acting normal to the grain
NATURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TIMBER

SLOPE OF GRAIN
- Wood Grain refers to the general direction of the arrangement of fibers in wood, and is expressed
with respect to the longitudinal axis of the sawn or round lumber
- A Cross grain occurs when the grain is at an angle to the longitudinal axis of the sawn section
(spiral or diagonal)
- Grain deviation can severely impair the strength properties of timber
NATURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TIMBER

SLOPE OF GRAIN
NATURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TIMBER

REACTION WOOD
The abnormal wood tissues produced in tree trunks subjected to long term bending stresses applied
on a tree. (strong wind pressures, own weight). There are two types of reaction wood:
1. In softwoods it is referred to as Compression wood
2. In hardwoods, it is referred as Tension wood
Reaction wood is much denser than normal wood, with a specific gravity of 35% greater in
compression wood and 7% greater in tension wood
NATURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TIMBER

REACTION WOOD
In Compression wood, reaction wood develops on the lower side of a leaning trunk due to the
compressive stress from bending. As for Tension wood, reaction wood develops on the upper side due
to the tensile stress from bending.
Timber containing compression wood is liable to excessive distortion during drying and tends to fail in
a brittle manner.
NATURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TIMBER

SPECIFIC GRAVITY/ RELATIVE DENSITY

- A good index for strength and stiffness of clear wood (free of knots and other strength-reducing
characteristics)
- The measure of substance (ratio of oven-dried weight to weight of equal volume of water)
- As the specific gravity of wood increases, its mechanical properties (strength and stiffness)
increases.
NATURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TIMBER

MOISTURE CONTENT, MC
Water is found in wood as free water in the cell cavities, and bound water in the cell walls. Moisture
content is generally defined as the weight of water on a piece of wood as expressed as a percentage
of the “oven-dry” weight of the same piece.

- Freshly sawn wood may have a moisture content greater than 100% (some species contain more water
that the wood substance itself)
- Fiber saturation point – the condition where the free water has left the cell cavities but the cell walls
are still saturated
- Below the fiber saturation point, wood shrinks and swells with changes in moisture content
- When control of the moisture content of the wood is to be achieved, high temperature kilns are often
used to dry the wood to a specified moisture content
- Framing lumber is kiln dried to a moisture content of 19% or less
- Lumber used for laminating is kiln dried to a moisture content of 16% or less
NATURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TIMBER

MOISTURE CONTENT, MC
 CONVERSION OF TIMBER
1. Selection 2. Sorting 3. Transporting
of mature and the logs to a
trees stockpiling sawmill

5. Seasoning
(drying) of timber
4. Cutting (conversion of
round logs to sawn
timber)

6. Felled trees are

replaced by
seedlings
CONVERSION OF TIMBER
TYPICAL SAWING PATTERNS
CONVERSION OF TIMBER
ORTHOTROPIC AXES AND REFERENCE PLANES IN WOOD
CONVERSION OF TIMBER
SOME METHODS FOR SEASONING WOOD
• Air Drying
• Kiln Drying
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
1. NATURAL DEFECTS
2. CONVERSION DEFECTS
3. SEASONING DEFECTS
4. CHEMICAL DEFECTS
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
1. NATURAL DEFECTS – Developed during the tree's growth
- Cracks and Fissures
- Knots
- Cross-grains
- Fungal Decay
- Reaction wood
- Annual ring width
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
2. CONVERSION DEFECTS – Due to the conversion process of timber

Natural and Conversion Defects in Timber

DEFECTS IN TIMBER
3. SEASONING DEFECTS – Drying too rapidly can result in shrinkage-caused defects

Seasoning Defects in Timber

DEFECTS IN TIMBER
4. CHEMICAL DEFECTS – An unfavorable chemical reaction in wood with an external agent

Chemical Defects in Timber

DEFINITIONS

LUMBER/ TIMBER
- Wood that has been processed for the use of construction or furniture
- Dry seasoned and cut into commercial sizes
DEFINITIONS

Longitudinal
Lateral
dimensions
dimension

𝑏
DEFINITIONS

THICKNESS
- The smaller lateral dimension of the piece of lumber (in general)
- Note that for lumber classified as beams, this dimension is often identified as the beam’s width

𝐵
Longitudinal
dimension
𝑐

𝑡h𝑎
𝑘

𝑏
DEFINITIONS

WIDTH
- The larger lateral dimension of the piece of lumber (in general)
- Note that for lumber classified as beams, this dimension is often identified as the beam’s depth

𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑐h
𝐻

𝑡 h𝑘

𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡𝑏h
DEFINITIONS

ROUGH LUMBER
Lumber that has been sawed but has not had its four longitudinal surfaces finished (saw marks show
on each face)
DEFINITIONS

DRESSED LUMBER
- Lumber whose surfaces have been finished so that the saw marks have been removed
- Dressed lumber may have planned faces, edges, or a combination of both
- Surfaced on one side (S1S)
- Surfaced on both sides (S2S)
- Surfaced on both sides and one edge (S3S)
- Surfaced on both sides and both edges (S4S)
- Surfaced on 1 edge (S1E)
- Surfaced of both edges (S2E)
- Surfaced on one side and one edge (S1S1E)
- Surfaced on 1 side and both edges (S1S2E) 𝑛𝑎
𝑟𝑟 𝑒
𝑜𝑤 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐
𝑓𝑎
𝑐𝑒
DEFINITIONS

LUMBER SIZES

𝑛𝑎
𝑟𝑟 𝑒
𝑜𝑤 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐
𝑓𝑎
𝑐𝑒
DEFINITIONS

LUMBER SIZES

1}over{4¿ 1}over{16¿
DEFINITIONS
DEFINITIONS

BOARD FOOT
A measure of timber volume

1 𝑏𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡=𝐿′ ×𝑊 ′ × 𝑡h𝑘′

or

𝐿 ′ ×𝑊 × 𝑡h𝑘
1 𝑏𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡 =
144
CLASSIFICATIONS

There are 3 main size categories of structural sawn lumber

THICKNESS WIDTH
BOARDS 25mm to 25.5mm thick (1” to 1 ½”) ≥ 50mm wide (≥ 2”)
CLASSIFICATIONS

There are 3 main size categories of structural sawn lumber

THICKNESS WIDTH
BOARDS 25mm to 25.5mm thick (1” to 1 ½”) ≥ 50mm wide (≥ 2”)
DIMENSION LUMBER 50mm to 100mm thick (2” to 4”) ≥ 50mm wide (≥ 2”)
CLASSIFICATIONS

There are 3 main size categories of structural sawn lumber

THICKNESS WIDTH
BOARDS 25mm to 25.5mm thick (1” to 1 ½”) ≥ 50mm wide (≥ 2”)
DIMENSION LUMBER 50mm to 100mm thick (2” to 4”) ≥ 50mm wide (≥ 2”)
TIMBERS ≥ 125mm thick (≥ 5”) ≥ 125mm wide (≥ 5”)

In stress grading lumber, its size and primary function/use are also taken into account

Note: Since Boards are to thin for structural use, we will be focusing on Dimension lumber and Timbers
CLASSIFICATIONS

DIMENSION LUMBER
- 50mm to 100mm (nominal) thick
- ≥ 50mm (nominal) wide
- Designed for use as framing members

The Sub-categories of Dimension Lumber

a. Light Framing – intended for use where the highest strength values are not required such as wall
framing, plates, sills cripples and blocking
b. Structural light Framing – for applications where the highest design values are needed
c. Stud – for vertical uses, such as load bearing walls
d. Joists and Planks – for applications where high strength values are required, such as floor joists,
rafters, headers, small beams, trusses and general framing (width ≥ 125mm)
CLASSIFICATIONS
CLASSIFICATIONS

DECKING
- Also a sub-category of Dimension Lumber
- 50mm to 100mm (nominal) thick
- ≥ 50mm (nominal) wide
- Tonged and grooved, or grooved for spline in the narrow face
- Intended for use as a roof, floor, or wall membrane
- Decking is graded for application in the flatwise direction, with the wide face of decking in contact
with the supporting members, as normally installed
CLASSIFICATIONS

TIMBERS
- ≥ 125mm thick
- ≥ 125mm wide
- Designed for construction uses where material larger than Joists, Planks and Studs is required

The Sub-categories of Timbers are

a. Posts and Timbers
- Lumber of square or approximately square cross section 125x125mm (nominal), with
width not more than 50mm greater than the thickness
- Graded primarily for the use as posts or columns carrying axial load
b. Beams and Stringers
- 125mm or more in thickness, with width more than 50mm greater than the thickness
- Graded with respect to its strength in bending
LUMBER GRADING

GRADING
Grading is the process of classifying lumber according to quality for a particular use. Stress grading
evaluates the qualities that affect various strength properties and stiffness. There are two types of
stress grading:
1. Visual Stress Grading – Carried out by an approved grader. The grader examines each piece of
timber to check the size and frequency of specific physical characteristics or defects such as
knots, slope of grains, rate of growth, wane, resin pockets, and distortion
LUMBER GRADING

GRADING
Grading is the process of classifying lumber according to quality for a particular use. Stress grading
evaluates the qualities that affect various strength properties and stiffness. There are two types of
stress grading:
2. Machine Stress Grading – Follows the principle that strength is related to stiffness. Timber
undergoes load– or deflection–controlled bending tests.
REFERENCE VALUES FOR VISUALLY STRESS GRADED
TIMBER
- Table 615.2–1 of the National Structural Code of the
Philippines (NSCP) provides us with reference values
for Visually Stress Graded Unseasoned Structural
Timber of Philippine Woods
- 4 Strength Groups (High strength, Moderately high
strength, Medium strength, and Moderately low
strength)
REFERENCE VALUES FOR VISUALLY STRESS GRADED
TIMBER
- Table 615.2–1 of the National Structural Code of the
Philippines (NSCP) provides us with reference values
for Visually Stress Graded Unseasoned Structural
Timber of Philippine Woods
- 4 Strength Groups (High strength, Moderately high
strength, Medium strength, and Moderately low
strength)
- Stress Grade (50%, 63%, and 80%)
REFERENCE VALUES FOR VISUALLY STRESS GRADED
TIMBER
- Table 615.2–1 of the National Structural Code of the
Philippines (NSCP) provides us with reference values
for Visually Stress Graded Unseasoned Structural
Timber of Philippine Woods
- 4 Strength Groups (High strength, Moderately high
strength, Medium strength, and Moderately low
strength)
- Stress Grade (50%, 63%, and 80%)
REFERENCE VALUES FOR VISUALLY STRESS GRADED
TIMBER
- Table 615.2–1 of the National Structural Code of the
Philippines (NSCP) provides us with reference values
for Visually Stress Graded Unseasoned Structural
Timber of Philippine Woods
- 4 Strength Groups (High strength, Moderately high
strength, Medium strength, and Moderately low
strength)
- Stress Grade (50%, 63%, and 80%)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Determine the reference values for Molave, for Bending,
` Compression parallel to grain, Shear,
Tension, and Modulus of Elasticity, if it is visually graded 84%
SOLUTION TO SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Determine the reference values for Molave, for Bending, Compression parallel to grain, Shear,
Tension, and Modulus of Elasticity, if it is visually graded 84%

Since the given species is visually graded 84%, we use the appropriate table for the reference values
 SOLUTION TO SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Determine the reference values for Molave, for Bending, Compression parallel to grain, Shear,
Tension, and Modulus of Elasticity, if it is visually graded 84%

We now determine the reference values for the Molave species

𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 , 𝐹 𝑏=24.0 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝐴𝑁𝑆

𝑆h𝑒𝑎𝑟 , 𝐹 𝑣 =2.88 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝐴𝑁𝑆

𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 , 𝐹 𝑡 =24.0 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝐴𝑁𝑆
END