1
2
PROCESS CONTROL FUNDAMENTALS
CH3031
TRANSFER FUNCTIONS
3
Transfer Functions
• Convenient representation of a linear, dynamic
model.
• A transfer function (TF) relates one input and
one output (in terms of the Laplace domain i.e
x(s), y(s)
x(t) y(t)
X(s) TF Y(s)
The following terminology is used:
x Y
input Output
Forcing function response
“cause” “effect” 4
Definition of the transfer function:
Let G(s) denote the transfer function between an input, x, and an
output, y. Then, by definition
where:
5
Development of Transfer Functions
Example: Stirred Tank Heating System
Stirred-tank heating process with constant holdup, V.
6
Recall the previous dynamic model, assuming constant liquid
holdup and flow rates:
dT
V C = wC (Ti − T ) + Q (1)
dt
Suppose the process is initially at steady state:
T ( 0 ) = T , Ti ( 0 ) = Ti , Q ( 0 ) = Q ( 2)
0 = wC (Ti − T ) + Q (3)
Subtract (3) from (1):
= wC (Ti − Ti ) − (T − T ) + ( Q − Q )
dT
V C (4)
dt
7
dT d (T − T )
But, = because T is a constant (5)
dt dt
Thus we can substitute into (4) to get,
dT
V C = wC (Ti − T ) + Q (6)
dt
where we have introduced the following “deviation variables”,
also called “perturbation variables”:
Take ℒ of (6):
8
Evaluate T (t = 0).
T ( 0) = T (0) − T (9)
Rearrange (8) to solve for T ( s) :
K 1
T ( s ) = Q ( s ) + Ti( s ) (10)
s +1 s +1
9
Ti ( t ) = Ti Ti( t ) = 0 Ti( s ) = 0. Then we can substitute into
(10) and rearrange to get the desired transfer function, TF:
1st T ( s) K
= (12)
order Q ( s ) s + 1
TF
10
Suppose that Q is constant at its steady-state value:
Q ( t ) = Q Q ( t ) = 0 Q ( s ) = 0
Thus, rearranging
T ( s) 1
= (13)
Ti( s ) s + 1
Comments:
1. The TFs in (12) and (13) show the individual effects of Q
and Ti on T. What about simultaneous changes in both Q and
Ti ?
11
• Note: Eq. (10) shows that the effects of
changes in both Q and Ti are additive.
This always occurs for linear, dynamic
models (like TFs) because the Principle
of Superposition is valid.
2. The TF model enables us to determine the output response to
any change in an input.
3. Use deviation variables to eliminate initial conditions for TF
models.
12
Properties of Transfer Function Models
Property #1: Steady-State Gain
The steady-state of a TF can be used to calculate the steady-
state change in an output due to a steady-state change in the
input. For example, suppose we know two steady states for
an input, u, and an output, y. Then we can calculate the
steady-state gain, K, from:
y 2 − y1
K = (14)
u 2 − u1
For a linear system, K is a constant. But for a nonlinear
system, K will depend on the operating condition ( u , y ) .
13
Property #2 : Order of a TF Model
Consider a general n-th order, linear ODE:
d ny dy n −1 dy
an + an −1 + K a1 + a0 y
dt n
dt n −1 dt
d mu d m −1u du
= bm m
+ bm −1 m −1
+ K + b1 + b0u (16)
dt dt dt
Take ℒ, assuming the initial conditions are all zero.
Rearranging gives the TF:
m
Y (s )
i
b s i
G (s ) = = i =0
(17)
U (s ) n
i
a s i
i =0
14
Property #3: Additive
Suppose that an output is influenced by two inputs and that the
transfer functions are known:
Y (s) Y (s)
= G1 ( s ) and = G2 ( s )
U1 ( s ) U2 (s)
Then the response to changes in both U1 and U2 can be written
as:
Y ( s ) = G1 ( s )U1 ( s ) + G2 ( s )U 2 ( s )
The graphical representation (or block diagram) is:
U1(s) G1(s)
Y(s)
U2(s) G2(s)
15
Property #4: Multiplicative
Suppose that,
Y (s) U2 ( s)
= G2 ( s ) and = G3 ( s )
U2 ( s) U3 ( s )
Then,
Y ( s ) = G2 ( s )U 2 ( s ) and U 2 ( s ) = G3 ( s )U 3 ( s )
Substitute,
Y ( s ) = G2 ( s ) G3 ( s )U 3 ( s )
Or,
Y (s)
= G2 ( s ) G3 ( s ) U3 ( s ) G2 ( s ) G3 ( s ) Y (s)
U3 ( s )
16
Linearization of Nonlinear Models
• So far, we have emphasized linear models which can be
transformed into TF models.
• But most physical processes and physical models are
nonlinear.
- But over a small range of operating conditions, the
behavior may be approximately linear.
- Conclude: Linear approximations can be useful, especially
for purpose of analysis.
• Approximate linear models can be obtained analytically by a
method called “linearization”. It is based on a Taylor Series
Expansion of a nonlinear function about a specified operating
point.
17
• Consider a nonlinear, dynamic model relating two process
variables, u and y:
dy
= f ( y ,u ) (19)
dt
18
The steady-state version of (19) is:
0 = f (u , y )
dy dy
Substitute into (21) and recall that = ,
dt dt
Linearized
model
Example: Liquid Storage System
dh
Mass balance: A = qi − q (1)
dt
Valve relation: q = Cv h (2)
A = area, Cv = constant
19
Combine (1) and (2),
dh
A = qi − Cv h (3)
dt
Linearize term,
Or
where:
20
Substitute linearized expression (5) into (3):
The steady-state version of (3) is:
0 = qi − Cv h (7)
21
THE END
22