Magnetic Method In Mineral

Exploration
By
Eko M. C. Lubis ST. MT.
Sr. Geophysicist at PT. JResources Bolaang Mongondow
Facts:
• Magnetic method is the oldest branch of geophysics
• It is already known for three centuries that the earth behave like an irregular magnet
• Karl Frederick Gauss made extensive studies of the Earth magnetic field from about 1830 to 1842, and most of
his conclusions are still valid today
• The fluxgate magnetometer was developed during WWII for detecting submarines from an aircraft.
• Proton-precision magnetometer (the most used instrument) developed in the mid-1950s, are very reliable and
their operation is simple and rapid.
• Optical-pump alkali-vapor magnetometers began to used in 1962 are so accurate that instrumentation no
longer limits the accuracy of magnetic measurement.
• Airborne gradiometer measurements began in the late 1960s, although ground measurements were made
much earlier. This remove the effect of temporal field variation
Background
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A recorded magnetic field at every

observation point on the surface by a
magnetometer is a total magnetization
contribution of all rocks and materials
surrounding the sensor in space and time
where the magnitude of every contribution is
vary as the distance and direction from the
sensor.

(Blakely R.J., 1996)

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 A magnetizable body placed in an external magnetic field become magnetized by induction.

 The magnetization (M) is due to the reorientation of atoms and molecules so that their spins line up.
 The line up of internal dipoles produced a field M, which within body is added to the magnetization
field H.
 If M is constant and has the same direction throughout, a body is said to be uniformly magnetized.
 For low magnetic field, M is proportional to H and is in direction of H.
 The degree to which a body is magnetized is determined by its magnetic susceptibility (k)
 The magnetic respond of rock is determined by the amount of magnetic minerals in them.
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As the exploration geophysics is concerned, the geomagnetic field of the Earth consists of:
1. The main field, which varies relatively slowly and is of internal origin
2. A small field (compared to the main field), which varies rather rapidly and originate outside
the Earth
3. Spatial variations of the main field, which are usually smaller than the main field, are nearly
constant in time and place, and are caused by local magnetic anomalies in the near surface
crust of the Earth.
1. The Main Field

The Earth Magnetic

Field Direction
 Fe = Magnitude of the magnetic field
 He = Horizontal magnetic component
 Ze = Vertical magnetic component
 I = angle from horizontal plane (inclination)
 D = angle from geographic north (declination)
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The magnetic field element are related as
follows:
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The Earth Magnetic Field Model
(Magnitude and orientation)
2. The External Field

Most of the remaining small portion of the geomagnetic field appears to be associated with electric
current in the ionized layers of the upper atmosphere. Time variations of this portion are much more
rapid than for the main “permanent” field. Some effects are:
a. A cycle of 11 years which is correlated to sunspot activity.
b. Solar diurnal variations with period of 24 hours and a range of 30 nT that vary with latitude and
season, and are probably controlled by action of the solar wind on ionospheric currents.
c. Lunar variation with 24 hours period and an amplitude 2 nT that vary cyclically throughout the
month and seem to be associated with Moon-ionosphere interaction.
d. Magnetic storms that are transient disturbances with amplitude up to 1.000 nT at most latitude
and even larger in polar regions, where they are associated with Aurora.
2. The Local Field

 Local change in the main field result from variations in the magnetic mineral content of near
surface rocks. The anomalies occasionally are large enough to double the main field. They usually
do not persist over great distances.
 The sources of local magnetic anomalies can not be very deep, because temperature below ~ 40
km should be above the Curie temperature (~ 500° C) where the mineral lost it magnetic
moment.
Magnetism of Rock and Minerals

 Magnetic anomalies in rock are caused by magnetic mineras (mainly magnetic and pyrrhotite) contained in the rock and are surprisingly
few in number.
 A rock or material can be divided on the basis of their behavior when placed in an external field as:
 Diamagnetic, if its field dominated by atoms with orbital electrons oriented to oppose the external field, that is exhibits negative
susceptibility. The most common diamagnetic mineral is graphite, marble, quartz, and salt.
 Paramagnetic, same as diamagnetic mineral, but when the magnetic moment is not zero when H is zero, so the susceptibility is positive.
The effect of diamagnetic and paramagnetic are mostly weak.
 Ferromagnetic, when the magnetic moment of a paramagnetic material are strongly aligned to induction force. Such as iron, cobalt, and
nickle. Ferromagnetic decrease with increasing temperature and dissepeares entirely at the Curie point.
 Antiferromagnetic, when the magnetic moment of ferromagnetic material is in opposite direction of the external force and is canceling
each other. Such as hematite.
 Ferrimagnetic, In some material the magnetic subdomain align in opposition but their net moment is not zero, either because one set of
subdomains has a stronger magnetic alignment than the other of because there are more subdomains. Such as magnetite, pyrrhotite,
iron, titanium, all magnetic minerals are ferromagnetic.
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[Link]
Remanent Magnetism

The magnetization of rocks depends mainly on the present geomagnetic

field and magnetic mineral content.

Residual magnetism (called natural remanent magnetization, NRM) often

contributes to total magnetization, both in amplitude and direction. The
effect is complicated because NRM depends on the magnetic history of the
rock.
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The causes of NRM:
• Thermoremanent magfnetization, which result when magnetic material is cooled below the Curie point in
the present of external field (usually the Earth magnetic field).
• Detrital magnetization, which occurs during the slow settling of fine-grained particles in the presence of
external field.
• Chemical remanent magnetization, which take place when magnetic grain change in size or are changed
from one form to another as a result of chemical action at moderate temperature below the Curie point
such as in sedimentary of metamorphic rocks.
• Isothermal remanent magnetization, which is the residual left following the removal of an external field
such as lightening strikes
• Viscous remanent magnetization, which is produced by long exposure to an external field and quite stable.
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(magnetite, [Link])

(pyrrhotite, [Link])
Field Instrument For Magnetic Exploration
(GEM System, 2022)

Proton Magnetometer Overhauser Magnetometer Potassium Magnetometer

(sensitivity: 0.15 nT, (sensitivity: 0.022 nT, (sensitivity: 0.0002 nT,
resolution: up to 0.01 nT) resolution: up to 0.01 nT) resolution: up to 0.0001 nT)
Field Operation

Magnetic exploration carried out on:

• Land
• Sea
• Air
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 Magnetic Effect Of A Dipole (Task…)

A small three dimensional structure containing anomalous concentrations of magnetic materials and
varying in section from rod-like to spherical often may be represented by a dipole model (Telford, 1990)

When the second dipole body occurs

with magnetic susceptibility equal to 0.5
Describes and illustrate the Total, SI, depth to top of dipole is 2.5 km, and
Vertical, and Horizontal magnetic fields dipole length (radius) at 4 km and
when an external field presents for single separated 5 km away from the first body.
dipole body with magnetic susceptibility
equal to 1 SI, depth to top of dipole is 1.5
km, and dipole length (radius) at 2 km. Use spectral analysis to separate signal
respond of each body
 (Soengkono S., 2016)

Effect of Different Induced (Earth

Magnetic) Field Orientation To The
Recorded Magnetic Data

Since the orientation of the Earth magnetic field is vary

for every observation location as described by it
inclination and declination, it will be represented by
the shape of the recorded profile. Below is an example
of a different data recorded from the same synthetic
model, but with different EMF orientation (or if the
data were recorded at different location on Earth).
 Correcting the Effect Of EMF Orientation Using Transformation Process
• Reduced to the pole, removes the effect of induced magnetization and strike while preserving dip
information. However standard RTP transform is difficult to apply at very low latitudes and produce poor
quality maps dominated by declination-parallel artefacts. Additionally, the transform can not completely
reconstruct NS-trending anomalies (Rajagopalan, 2003)
• Reduce to Equator, it is used to tackle the lack ability of reduced to the pole at low latitude. However, at low
latitude, feature normal to the declination can blow up due to strong amplitude correction that is applied and
it also produces a phase reversal.
• Analytical Signal, is a function of magnetic gradients and easy to compute at all latitudes. However it lacks
the resolution that derivative maps provide and lacks the dip and textural information (Rajagopalan, 2003).
The uses of analytical signal results in source body characteristic and the direction of the body magnetization
was not needed for these estimation
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(Rajagopalan S., 2019)

• Reduced to The Pole (RTP)
It principal effect is to shift magnetic anomalies position directly above their sources (Baranov and Naudy, 1964; Blakely, 1995). It is using
inclination and declination at the observation location at the date of data acquisition for correction.

• Analytical Signal (edges detection filter)

The square root of the sum of the squares of the vertical and two horizontal derivatives
(gradients), or is so called total gradient that independent of magnetization direction.
Enhances Magnetic Map Using Filter

(Ibraheem et. al., 2019)

Using Transformation To Enhance Magnetic Map Example…

Example: Geological and structural interpretation of the Konongo area of the

Ashanti gold belt off Ghana from aeromagnetic and radiometric data.
(Benjamin Boadi, Kwasi Preko, & David Dotse Wemegah, International Research Journals of Geology and Mining, 2013)

Aeromagnetic method was used to investigate the Konongo area located at the north-eastern boundary
of the prospective Ashanti Gold Belt in south-eastern Ghana. The application of magnetic image
enhancing techniques such as reduced to the pole (rtp), analytical signal, and first vertical derivative, tilt
angle in processing datasets helped in the delineation of folds, fractures, lithological boundaries, and the
main tectonic structural deformation event D1 (NE-SW) and D2 (NNW-SSE) which are potential
hydrothermal gold mineralization zones within the area.
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• Area with low eTh/K indicates

Potassium enrichment due to
hydrothermal alteration.
• Low eTH/K appears at the contact
of high magnetic MV with MS,
Tarkwain Formation, and BB. This
area also marked by low magnetic
respond which is also indicates a
hydrothermal process along
lithological contact and NE or
crosscutting NE and NW structure.
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Another filtering method to enhance target anomaly
Low Pass Filter
Example: Gravity survey at manganese deposit , Pilbara
Region, Western Australia
(Dentith, M. C., & Wheatley, M. R.,1999)
Subsurface Modeling Of Magnetic Anomaly

Forward Problem

Given: Estimates or values of the

model parameters

Determine: Theoretical responses (data)

The Forward Process

Model Numerical Representation of Computed

Parameters System Dynamics (Forward Responds
Theory)

Input Operators Output

(Meju, 1994)
 A theory has only the alternative of being right or wrong. A model has
a third possibility: it may be right, but irrelevant.
(Paul R. Ehrlich)

Forward Magnetic Modeling Example

Rifting Basin Setting
(“Analysis of gravity and aeromagnetic
data to determine structural trend and
basement depth beneath the Ajdabiya
Trough in northeastern Libya”
- Eshanibli et all., 2021)

Data constraint or previous knowledge of

the geology is a must in forward modeling.
The constraint such as:
1. Geology (lithology, stratigraphy,
orientation, contact, thickness,
volcanism, tectonism)
2. Drillhole data (contact, interval, etc.)
3. Petrography
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Inverse Problem

Given: Field observations (Earth

system responses)

Determine: Parameters of the Earth model

The Inverse Process

Obervational Mathematical Tools (Inverse Estimates of

Data Theory) System
Parameters

Input Operators Output

(Meju, 1994)
 Geophysical Exploration In Low
Sulphidation Epithermal Deposit Example

(Mule Canyon Mine,

Nevada)

(Wright J.L. & Lider C. S.,

unknown)
Geophysical Exploration In Carlin Type Sediment Hosted
Deposit Example

(Mule Canyon Mine,

Nevada)

(Wright J.L. & Lider C. S.,

unknown)
Geophysical Exploration In Carlin Type Sediment Hosted
Deposit Example

(Mule Canyon Mine,

Nevada)

(Wright J.L. & Lider C. S.,

unknown)
 (Mule Canyon Mine,
Nevada)

(Wright J.L. & Lider C. S.,

unknown)
(Wright J.L. & Lider C. S., unknown)
Inverse Magnetic Modeling Example
High Sulphidation Epithermal

Data constraint from drilling or previous knowledge

of geology sometime is not really a must in inverse
modeling. However conceptual knowledge of
geology or deposit could help selecting and shaping
the model to be more realistic in an early
exploration stage.

There is no final model in inversion modeling since

the inversion is ill-poses process. Additional
knowledge from surface mapping, borehole, and
petrographic data will surely improve the model in
the end.
Sediment Hosted Mineralization

Sediment-hosted gold deposits are

characterized by very fine-grained gold,
typically occurring in stratabound jasperoid
replacement and structurally controlled
orebodies in calcareous or carbonaceous
sedimentary rocks, which are commonly
distal to porphyry copper-gold deposits
(Kirwin D.J & Royle Z. R., 2018).

Sediment hosted gold deposits (Berger et

all, USGS, 2014):
1. A general sediment-hosted gold type (Berger et all.,USGS, 2014)
model
2. A Carlin subtype model
3. A Chinese subtype model
(Kirwin D.J & Royle Z. R., 2018).
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Mineralogical similarities and dissimilarities of Carlin & Chinese subtypes:
 Mineralogical similarities in the two subtypes are indicated by predominantly invisible micron-sized gold
contained mostly as inclusions in pyrite, As-pyrite, quartz, iron-oxide, and clay mineral (Berger et all.,
USGS, 2014). The enrichment of these minerals is distinguishable by the geophysics chargeability,
resistivity, magnetic, or density properties (ip, csamt, amt/mt, magnetic, gravity are geophysical methods
to choose).
 Mineralogical dissimilarities of the two subtypes are:
 Arsenopyrite, stibnite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, and magnetite are widely reported in deposits of
Chinese subtype. Arsenopyrite is one of the main gold-bearing minerals in Chinese subtype, but
negligible in the Carlin subtype group (Berger et all, USGS, 2014)
 In deposits of the Chinese subtype, carbonate minerals were reportedly frequently containing calcite,
dolomite, ankerite, and siderite. Muscovite/sericite and chlorite are also widely distributed.
Observation on micron sized gold hosted by carbonate minerals and sericite is common in Chinese
subtype, but rarely described as gold bearing in the Carlin subtype deposits.
 Decalcification is major type of alteration in Carlin subtype deposits, but rarely in Chinese subtype.
Similarly, jasperoids is found in 52% of Carlin subtype deposits, but only minor in Chinese subtype.
(Modified from Berger et all.,USGS, 2014)
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The combined effects of structural and magmatic (intrusion) factors on tonnages and gold grade in
sediment-hosted deposit (Berger et all.,USGS, 2014)
• Fault controlled deposit in amagmatic areas
• Strata controlled deposit in amagmatic areas
• Fault controlled deposit in presence of magmatic rock (dikes & stocks)
• Strata controlled deposits in presence of magmatic rock (dikes & stocks)

The deposits are hosted in calcareous and carbonaceous sedimentary rocks of varying ages and are associated
with deep seated regional strike slip faults and commonly occur in structural anticlines (Kirwin D.J & Royle Z. R.,
2018).

Jasperoid is the main ore type in Carlin subtype. Economic near surface ore types include episodically silicified
and variably oxidized jasperoid breccias, veins, and vein stockworks, with evidence pf multiple generation of
quartz veining and replacement oc calcareous rock (Kirwin D.J & Royle Z. R., 2018).
.
Continue… (Berger et all.,USGS, 2014)
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(Berger et all.,USGS, 2014)

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(Kirwin D.J & Royle Z. R., 2018).

(Kirwin D.J & Royle Z. R., 2018).