BMEE301L
Design of Machine Elements
Dr. Benedict Thomas
School of Mechanical Engineering
Module-I
Design Against Static Load
A mechanical component may fail (i.e. may be unable to perform its
function satisfactorily, as a result of any one of the following three modes
of failure:
a) Failure by elastic deflection,
b) Failure by general yielding, and
c) Failure by fracture
➢ A mechanical components made of ductile material loses its
engineering usefulness due to a large amount of plastic deformation
after the yield point stress is reached.
➢ Component made of brittle material cease to function satisfactorily
because of the sudden fracture without any plastic deformation. The
failure in this case is sudden and total.
Stress and Strain
When a mechanical component is subjected to an external static force, a
resisting force is set up within the component. The internal resisting force
per unit area of the component is called unit stress or simply a stress. It is
denoted by a Greek letter sigma (σ).
Mathematically,
Stress, σ = P/A
When a system of forces or loads act on a body, it undergoes some
deformation. This deformation per unit length is known as unit strain or
simply a strain. It is denoted by a Greek letter epsilon (ε). Mathematically
Strain, ε = δl / l
or δl = ε.l
where
δl = Change in length of the body, and
l = Original length of the body.
Tensile Stress and Strain
Compressive Stress and Strain
Normal stress
The internal resisting force per unit area of the component is called stress.
Tensile Stress Compressive Stress
Many times, the unit for stress or strength is taken as MPa.
Shear Stress and Strain
When the external force acting on a component tends to slide the
adjacent planes with respect to each other, the resulting stresses on
these planes are called direct shear stresses. OR
When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite forces acting
tangentially across the resisting section, as a result of which the
body tends to shear off the section, then the stress induced is called
shear stress.
[Link]
Shear stress, τ =Tangential force
Resisting area
Bearing Stress
A localized compressive stress at the surface of contact
between two members of a machine part, that are relatively at
rest is known as bearing stress or crushing stress.
Working Stress
When designing machine parts, it is desirable to keep the stress lower
than the maximum or ultimate stress at which failure of the material
takes place. This stress is known as the working stress or design stress.
It is also known as safe or allowable stress.
Factor of Safety
It is defined, in general, as the ratio of the maximum stress to the
working stress. Mathematically,
Maximum Stress
Factor of Safety=
Working or Design Stress
Effect of failure
Failure of ball bearing-less effect
Failure of valve- severe effect
So, factor of safety is high in applications where failure is
severe
Type of load
Low-static load
Impact load-high
Degree of accuracy in force analysis
When the forces acting are precisely determined-low FOS
Uncertain and unpredictable forces-high FOS
Material component
Homogeneous ductile material (steel)-small FOS
Non-homogeneous material (cast iron)-higher FOS
Reliability of component
The FOS increases with increasing reliability- e.g., continuous
process equipment, power stations, defense equipment etc.
Cost of component
As the FOS increases, dimensions of the component, material
requirement and cost increases
The FOS is low for cheap machine parts
Testing of machine element
Machine components tested under actual conditions of
service and operation-low FOS
Service conditions
When the machine element is operated in corrosive
atmosphere or high temperature environment-high FOS
Quality of manufacture
When the quality of manufacture is high, variations in
dimensions are less-low FOS
To compensate for poor manufacturing quality-high FOS
Testing of machine element
Machine components tested under actual conditions of
service and operation-low FOS
Service conditions
When the machine element is operated in corrosive
atmosphere or high temperature environment-high FOS
Quality of manufacture
When the quality of manufacture is high, variations in
dimensions are less-low FOS
To compensate for poor manufacturing quality-high FOS
Torsional shear stress
When a machine member is subjected to the action of two equal and
opposite couples acting in parallel planes (or torque or twisting moment),
then the machine member is said to be subjected to torsion. The stress
set up by torsion is known as torsional shear stress. It is zero at the
centroidal axis and maximum at the outer surface.
where
τ = Torsional shear stress induced at the outer surface of the
shaft or maximum shear stress,
r = Radius of the shaft,
T = Torque or twisting moment,
J = Second moment of area of the section about its polar axis or
polar moment of inertia,
C = Modulus of rigidity for the shaft material,
l = Length of the shaft, and
θ = Angle of twist in radians on a length l.
Torsion equation is based on the following assumptions:
1. The material of the shaft is uniform throughout.
2. The twist along the length of the shaft is uniform.
3. The normal cross-sections of the shaft, which were plane and
circular before twist, remain plane and circular after twist.
4. All diameters of the normal cross-section which were straight
before twist, remain straight with their magnitude unchanged, after
twist.
5. The maximum shear stress induced in the shaft due to the
twisting moment does not exceed its elastic limit value.
Bending Stress in Straight Beams
Machine parts of structural members may be subjected to static or
dynamic loads which cause bending stress in the sections besides other
types of stresses such as tensile, compressive and shearing stresses.
Consider a straight beam subjected to a bending moment M as shown in
Figure. The following assumptions are usually made while deriving the
bending formula.
1. The material of the beam is perfectly homogeneous and isotropic
2. The material of the beam obeys Hooke’s law.
3. The transverse sections (i.e. BC or GH) which were plane before
bending, remain plane after bending also.
4. Each layer of the beam is free to expand or contract, independently, of
the layer, above or below it.
5. The Young’s modulus (E) is the same in tension and compression.
6. The loads are applied in the plane of bending.
The bending equation is given By
where M = Bending moment acting at the given section,
σ = Bending stress,
I = Moment of inertia of the cross-section about the neutral axis,
y = Distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fibre,
E = Young’s modulus of the material of the beam, and
R = Radius of curvature of the beam.
Notes :
1. The neutral axis of a section always passes through its centroid.
2. In case of symmetrical sections such as circular, square or rectangular,
the neutral axis passes through its geometrical centre
3. In case of unsymmetrical sections such as L‐section or T‐section, the
neutral axis does not pass through its geometrical centre. In such cases,
first of all the centroid of the section is calculated and then the distance of
the extreme fibres for both lower and upper side of the section is
Problem-1
Qu.1. A shaft is transmitting 97.5 kW at 180 r.p.m. If
the allowable shear stress in the material is 60
MPa, find the suitable diameter for the shaft.
The shaft is not to twist more that 1° in a
length of 3 metres. Take C = 80 GPa.
Problem-2
Qu.2. A hollow shaft is required to transmit 600 kW at
110 r.p.m., the maximum torque being 20% greater
than the mean. The shear stress is not to exceed
63 MPa and twist in a length of 3 metres not to
exceed 1.4 degrees. Find the external diameter of
the shaft, if the internal diameter to the external
diameter is 3/8. Take modulus of rigidity as 84
GPa.
Problem-3
Qu.3. A pump lever rocking shaft is shown in Figure. The
pump lever exerts forces of 25 kN and 35 kN
concentrated at 150 mm and 200 mm from the left
and right hand bearing respectively. Find the
diameter of the central portion of the shaft, if the
stress is not to exceed 100 MPa.
Problem-4
Qu.4. The frame of a hacksaw is shown in Fig.(a). The
initial tension P in the blade should be 300 N. The
frame is made of plain carbon steel 30C8 with a
tensile yield strength of 400 N/mm2 and the factor
of safety is 2.5. The cross-section of the frame is
rectangular with a ratio of depth to width as 3, as
shown in Fig. (b). Determine the dimensions of the
cross-section.
Problem-5
Qu.5. An offset link subjected to a force of 25 kN is
shown in Fig. It is made of grey cast iron FG300
and the factor of safety is 3. Determine the
dimensions of the cross-section of the link.
Problem-6
Qu.6. The frame of a hydraulic press consisting of two
identical steel plates is shown in Fig. The
maximum force P acting on the frame is 20 kN.
The plates are made of steel 45C8 with tensile
yield strength of 380 N/mm2. The factor of safety
is 2.5. Determine the plate thickness.
Problem-7
Qu.7. A hollow circular column carries a projecting bracket, which
supports a load of 25 kN as shown in Fig. The distance between
the axis of the column and the load is 500 mm. The inner
diameter of the column is 0.8 times of the outer diameter. The
column is made of steel FeE 200 (Syt = 200 N/mm2) and the
factor of safety is 4. The column is to be designed on the basis
of maximum tensile stress and compression is not the criterion
of failure. Determine the dimensions of the cross-section of the
column.
Problems for Practice
1. A C-frame subjected to a force of 15 kN is shown in Fig. 1 It is made of grey
cast iron FG 300 and the factor of safety is 2.5. Determine the dimensions of the
cros-ssection of the frame.
(Ans: t = 15.81 mm)
2. A mild steel bracket as shown in Fig. 2, is subjected to a pull of 6000 N acting at
45° to its horizontal axis. The bracket has a rectangular section whose depth is
twice the thickness. Find the cross-sectional dimensions of the bracket, if the
permissible stress in the material of the bracket is limited to 60 MPa.
(Ans: t = 28.4 mm and b = 2t = 2 × 28.4 = 56.8 mm)
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
Problems for Practice
3. Compare the weights of equal lengths of hollow shaft and solid shaft to transmit a
given torque for the same maximum shear stress. The material for both the shafts is
same and inside diameter is 2/3 of outside diameter in case of hollow shaft. [Ans.
0.56]
4. A wall bracket, as shown in Fig. 3, is subjected to a pull of P = 5 kN, at 60° to the
vertical. The cross-section of bracket is rectangular having b = 3t . Determine the
dimensions b and t if the stress in the material of the bracket is limited to 28 MPa.
[Ans. 75 mm; 25 mm]
5. A bracket, as shown in Fig. 4, is bolted to the framework of a machine which
carries a load P. The cross-section at 40 mm from the fixed end is rectangular with
dimensions, 60 mm × 30 mm. If the maximum stress is limited to 70 MPa, find the
value of P.
[Ans. 3000 N]
Fig. 3 Fig. 4
There are many components which are subjected to several
types of load simultaneously. The stresses are classified in to
two groups- normal stresses and shear stresses.
Thus, in general, a complete state of stress is defined by nine
stress components, x , y , z , xy , yz , xz , yx , zy , zx
For equilibrium, in most cases, “cross-shears” are equal,
hence
xy = yx ; yz = zy ; xz = zx