Crystallography

CHAPTER-IV
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
After studying this Unit, you will be able to
 Describe general characteristics of solid state;
 Distinguish between amorphous and crystalline solids;
 Define crystal lattice and unit cell;
 Explain close packing of particles;
 Calculate the packing efficiency of different types of cubic unit cells;
 Correlate the density of a substance with its unit cell properties;

Concept:
There are three states of matter at room temperature viz, solid state, liquid state and
the gaseous state. In solids and liquids the distance between the neighbouring atoms is a
few angstrom units however, in case of gaseous state this distance is of the order of few
tens angstroms units (Å).
1. Solid: Solid is a state of matter in which all the constituent particles (atoms, molecules or
ions) arranged very closely due to intermolecular forces at room temperature.
2. The following are the characteristic properties of the solid state:
(i) They have definite mass, volume and shape.
(ii) Intermolecular distances are short and hence intermolecular forces are strong.
(iii) Their constituent particles (atoms, molecules or ions) have fixed positions and can
only oscillate about their mean positions.
(iv) They are incompressible and rigid.
The structure and physical properties of solid depends on the arrangement of atoms
within it. Based on atomic arrangement, solids may be classified as:
a) Crystalline Solids: In crystalline solids, the arrangement of constituent particles (atoms,
molecules or ions) is ordered forming a three dimensional pattern.
Example: Sodium Chloride, Quartz, Iron, Copper, diamond, Graphite.
There is a specific relation between arrangement of atoms know as order. The order
may be short range of long range. Depending on the order there are two types of crystal.

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(i) Single crystal:

When the periodicity extends throughout a certain piece of material, it is called single
crystal. Thus single crystals are said to posses long range order.
(ii) Polycrystalline:
The periodicity is interrupted at the grain boundaries. Thus polycrystalline solid is
made up of many grains where each grain is a single crystal and these grains are randomly
oriented. Polycrystalline solids are said to posses short range order.
Properties of crystalline solids:
1. They have a definite characteristic geometrical shape.
2. They have a long range order.
3. They have a sharp melting point.
4. They are anisotropic in nature i.e. their physical properties show different values when
measured along different directions in the same crystal.
5. When cut with a sharp edged tool, they split into two pieces and the newly generated
surfaces are plain and smooth.
6. They have a definite and characteristic heat of fusion.
7. They are called true solids.
b) Amorphous Solids:
The solid in which the constituent’s particles, atoms or molecules are arranged in a
random fashion is called as amorphous solid. Example: Glass, plastics, rubber.
Properties of Amorphous solids:
1. They are of irregular shape.
2. They have a short range order.
3. Gradually soften over a range of temperature
4. Isotropic in nature.
5. When cut with a sharp edged tool, they cut into two pieces with irregular surfaces.
6. They do not have definite heat of fusion.
7. Like liquids, amorphous solids have a tendency to flow, though very slowly. Therefore,
sometimes these are called pseudo solids or super cooled liquids.

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Crystallography:
It is a branch of science which deals with the study of the geometric form and other
physical properties of solids with the help of X-rays, electrons beam and neutron beam etc.
Lattice point and space lattice:
To study crystal structure, it is convenient to imagine points in space at which atoms
are located.
Lattice:
Lattice is defined as an array of points such that every lattice point has same
environment or every point is distinguishable from the other lattice point. It is an
imaginary concept.
Space Lattice:
The regular three dimensional periodic arrangement of points in a space such that
environment around each point is identical is called “space lattice”.

Fig.1. Space lattice

Consider point ‘o’ be the origin, then the position of any other lattice point is given by
T  la  mb

Where l, m are integers and a and b are the fundamental translation vectors characteristics
of lattice. The relation can be extended to three dimensional lattices and may be expressed
as
T  la  mb  nc

Basis and crystal structure:

“Group of atoms, ions or molecules identical in composition, arrangement and
orientation attached to every lattice point is called basis”.

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Fig.2 Crystal structure

Crystal Structure:
 Crystal structure is a unique arrangement of atoms or molecules in a crystalline solid or
liquid. For any size of crystals have identical internal structure.
 A crystal structure is composed of a pattern, a set of systematic atoms arranged in a
particular way. For analysis of determination of crystal structure X-rays are used, known
as X-ray crystallography.
 X-Rays are most widely used to study the crystal structure because the wavelength of x-
rays (10-12 to 10-10) are most comparable with the inter-atomic distances.
Unit cell and Lattice parameters:
Unit cell:
The unit cell is the smallest block or geometric figure from which the entire crystal is
built up by repetitions in three dimensions.
Consider a two dimensional crystal lattice shown in Fig3(a). When a parallelogram such
as ABCD is rotated repeatedly by an integral multiple of vectors a and b, then
corresponding to AB and AD whole pattern or array may be obtained. The whole crystal
thus may be reproduced. This region ABCD is called a unit cell and a, b the basis vectors.

Fig.3 A portion of (a) two dimensional and (b) three dimensional cubic lattice and its unit cell.

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The choice of unit cell is not unique. But, it can be constructed into a number of ways
like A1B1C1D1 or A2B2C2D2 without affecting symmetry of the crystal.
Lattice parameters:
Fig.4 shows a unit cell of three dimensional crystal lattice. The unit cell can be completely
described by three vector a , b , c and angles α, ,  between them. Taking any lattice point

as the origin, all other points on the lattice can be obtained by a repeated operation of the
lattice vector a , b , c .

A unit cell is characterized by:

 The vector a , b c define the length of three edges of unit cell. These edges may or may

not be mutually perpendicular.

 The angles between b & c, c & a, and a & b are denoted by α,  and , known as interfacial
angles.

Fig.4 Unit cell and lattice parameters

The axial length a , b , c and three interfacial angles α,  and  are known as lattice

parameters.
Primitive and Centred Unit Cells:
Unit cells can be broadly divided into two categories, primitive and centred unit cells.
(a) Primitive Unit Cells:
The unit cell which contains lattice points or atoms only at the corners are called as
primitive cell.
Example: Cubic Cell (SC)
(b) Centred Unit Cells or Non-primitive cell:
When a unit cell contains one or more atoms present at positions other than corners in
addition to those at corners, it is called a centred unit cell or non primitive cell. Centred
unit cells are of three types:

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(i) Body-Centred Unit Cells (I): Along with primitive arrangement, extra atom is at the
centre of cube in such a unit cell.
(ii) Face-Centred Unit Cells (F): Along with primitive arrangement, extra atom is at the
centre of each face.
(iii) Base centred Unit Cells (C): Along with primitive arrangement, extra atom is at the
centre of top and bottom surface.
Seven Crystal system and Bravais lattice:
Crystals are classified into seven crystal systems on the basis of (i) axial length a,b,c (ii)
interfacial angles α, ,  and (iii) directions of axis of symmetry.
The seven crystal systems are: (1) cubic, (2) Tetragonal, (3) orthorhombic, (4) Hexagonal,
(5) Rhombohedral, (6) Monoclinic, and (7) Triclinic

Fig.5 : Seven primitive unit cells in crystals

Table 1: Seven Primitive Unit Cells and their Possible Variations as Centred Unit Cells

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Bravais Lattices:
In 1980 Bravais showed that there are 14 possible types of space lattices in seven
crystal system of crystal. According to Bravais, there are only 14 possible ways of arranging
points in space lattice such that, all lattice points have exactly the same surroundings.
These 14 lattices are called as Bravais lattices. The possible types of Bravais lattices of
seven crystal systems are explained in brief in following section.
(1) Cubic Crystal System:
In cubic crystal system, the three crystal axes (α, , ) are perpendicular to each other
and the axial length (a, b, c) is the same along all three axis as shown in following Fig.

a = b = c, α =  =  = 90o
Bravais Lattices: In cubic crystal system, the cubic lattices are of three types. They are
(i) Simple cubic (ii) Body centered cubic (BCC) and (iii) Face centered cubic (FCC) as shown
above
(2) Tetragonal Crystal System:
In tetragonal system, the three axes are perpendicular to each other. Two of the three
axial lengths are the same, but the third axial length is different.

a = b ≠ c, α =  =  = 90o
Bravais Lattices: In Tetragonal crystal system, the cubic lattices are of two types. They are
(i) Simple cubic (ii) Body centered cubic (BCC).

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(3) Orthorhombic Crystal system:

In orthorhombic crystal system, the three crystal axes are perpendicular to each other.
However, all three axial lengths are of unequal lengths (different) as shown in following
Fig.

a ≠ b ≠ c, α =  =  = 90o
Bravais Lattices: In orthorhombic crystal system, the four different types of Bravais lattice
are possible. They are
(i)Simple (ii) Body centered (iii) Face centered and (iv) Base centered cubic.
(4) Monoclinic Crystal System:
In monoclinic crystal system, two of the crystal axes are perpendicular to each other,
but the third is obliquely inclined. The three axial lengths are different along three axes as
shown in following Fig.
Bravais Lattices: In monoclinic crystal system, only two types of Bravais lattice are possible.
They are (i)Simple (ii) Base centered.

a ≠ b ≠ c, α =  = 90o ≠ 
(5) Triclinic Crystal System:
In triclinic crystal system, none of the crystal axes is perpendicular to each other. The
axial lengths are different along three axes as shown in following Fig.
Bravais Lattices: Only one type of Bravais lattice is possible in this triclinic system.

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a ≠ b ≠ c, α ≠  ≠  ≠ 90o
(6) Trigonal or Rhombohedral Crystal System:
In Trigonal crystal system, the three axes are inclined to each other at an angle other
than 90o. The three axial lengths are equal along three axes as shown in following Fig.

a ≠ b ≠ c, α =  =  ≠ 90o
Bravais Lattices: Only one type of Bravais lattice is possible in this Trigonal system.
(7) Hexagonal Crystal System:
In hexagonal crystal system, two of the crystal axes are 90 o apart while the third is
perpendicular to both of them. The axial lengths are the same along the axes that are 90 o
apart, but the axial length along the third axis is different as shown in following Fig.

a = b ≠ c, α =  = 90o, =120 o
Bravais Lattices: Only one type of Bravais lattice is possible in hexagonal system.

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Properties of Unit Cell

1) Number of atoms per unit cell:
(i) Simple Cubic Structure:
It has eight lattice point or atoms at the eight corners of the cube or unit cell. Since each
corner atom is common to eight unit cells. Hence its contribution to each unit cell is 1/8
 Total contribution from all the 8 atoms at its corner to the cell is 8  1  1
8

∴ Total Number of atoms per unit cell=1

Fig.6 (a) In a simple cubic unit cell, each corner atom is shared between 8 unit cells, (b)
actual portions of atoms belonging to one unit cell.
(ii) Body Centered Cubic Structure
In addition to the corner atoms, it has one atom at the body centre wholly belongs to the
unit cell in which it is present. Thus in a body-centered cubic (bcc) unit cell:
(i) 8 corners atoms  18 per corner atom = 8  18 = 1 atom

(ii) 1 body centre atom = 1 × 1 = 1 atom

∴ Total number of atoms per unit cell = 2 atoms.
Fig.7 A body-centred cubic unit cell
(iii) Face Centered Cubic Structure
In addition to corner atoms, it has one atom at the centre of each face which is shared
by two adjoining unit cells. There are six such faces. It can be seen in Fig. that each atom
located at the face-centre is shared between two adjacent unit cells and only 1/2 of each
atom belongs to a unit cell.
(i) 8  18  1 atom

(ii) 6 face centred atoms × 1 2 atom per unit cell= 6  1 2 = 3 atom

∴ Total number of atoms per unit cell=4 atoms.

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Fig.8: A face-centred cubic unit cell

(2) Co-ordination Number:
It is defined as number of nearest neighbour to the given atom in a crystal.
(i) Simple Cubic Structure:
Simple cubic unit cell consist of eight corner
atoms. Let us consider any of the corner atoms. The
atom at the corner of the cell is surrounded by six
nearest equidistant neighbours out of which four in
its own plane (horizontal plane) and two are from
vertical plane (above and below it). Hence the co-
Fig.9 Co-ordination number of SC cell
ordination number for an atom in simple cubic is 6.

 Co-ordination Number=8

(ii) Body Centered Cubic Structure

In BCC structure, there will be one atom at the body-
centre and eight atoms at the eight corners of the unit cell.
Thus for an atom at the body centre obviously there are eight
neighbours (corner atoms). Hence the co-ordination number
of an atom in body centered cubic structure is 8.
 Co-ordination Number=8 Fig.10 Co-ordination number of BCC

(iii) Face Centered Cubic Structure

In FCC structure, each corner atom is in contact with face centered atom. There are 4
such face centered atoms in xy plane, 4 in yz plane and 4 in xz plane and total number is 12.

 Co-ordination Number=12 Fig.11 Co-ordination number of FCC

cell
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(3) Atomic Radius:

It is defined as half the distance between nearest atoms in a crystal.
(i) Simple Cubic Structure:
In a simple cubic structure, distance between nearest neighbouring atoms is ‘a’
∴ Radius of atom= a 2

Fig.12 Atomic radius of SC

(ii) Body Centered Cubic Structure

In this structure, the corner atoms do not touch each other, but each corner atom
touches the body centered atom along the body diagonal as shown in following Fig. Thus
the diagonal of the cube AD is 4r.
From, the geometry of the cube,
(AD)2 = (AC)2+ (CD)2 (  (AB)2+(BC)2)
Fig.13 Atomic radius of BCC
= (AB)2+(BC)2+(CD)2
(4r)2 = a2+a2+a2 =3a2

4r = 3  a or r  3  a
4

(iii) Face Centered Cubic Structure

In face centered cubic structure, the atoms touch each other along the diagonal of any
face of the cube as shown in following Fig. Thus the diagonal of the cube AC is 4r.
From, the geometry of the cube,
(AC)2 = AB)2+(BC)2
But AC = 4r
∴ (4r)2 = a2+a2 =2a2 Fig.14 Atomic radius of FCC

Hence, 4r = 2  a or r  2  a
4
(4) Atomic Packing Fraction
It is defined as the volume of unit cell actually occupied by atoms to the total volume of
unit cell, and it can be represented as,

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(i) Simple Cubic Structure:

No of atoms per unit cell = 1
If radius of atom is r,
Side of unit cell, a = 2r
4 3
Volume of one atom (v) = r
3
Volume of Unit cell (V) = a3 = (2r)3
4
1  r 3
v 
 APF   3
3
  0.52 =0.52
V ( 2r ) 6
 The 52 % volume occupied by atoms and remaining 48% volume is vacant.

(ii) Body Centered Cubic Structure

No of atoms per unit cell = 2
If radius of atom is r,
Side of unit cell, a =  4r



 3

Volume of one atom (v) = 4 3

r
3
3
Volume of Unit cell (V) = a3 =  4r



 3
4
2  r 3
 APF  v  3 
3 
 0.68
3
V  4r  8
 
 3

 The 68 % volume occupied by atoms and remaining 32% volume is vacant.

(iii) Face Centered Cubic Structure

No of atoms per unit cell = 4
If radius of atom is r,
Side of unit cell, a =  4r



 2

Volume of one atom (v) = 4 3

r
3
3
Volume of Unit cell (V) = a3 =  4r 
 
 2
4
2  r 3
 APF= v  3  2
3
  0.74
V  4r  6
 
 2
 The 74 % volume occupied by atoms and remaining 26% volume is vacant.

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Relation between lattice constant and Density:

The length of side of unit cell is known as lattice constant or lattice parameter. It can
also be defined as distance between two nearer atoms of same kind.
Consider cubic lattice of lattice constant= a
The number of atoms per unit cell = n
The atomic weight of the crystalline substance or compound = A
Density of unit cell = 
Avogadro’s number = N
(Avogadro’s number gives the number of molecules per kg mol of the substance).
Mass of each molecule = A N

M A n
Hence mass of n molecules or atoms per unit cell, N

Density of unit cell is

1
A n  A n  3
 or a   
N a N 
3

Therefore, using above equation we can calculate lattice constant.

Symmetry Elements:
Due to regular and periodic arrangement of atoms in crystal, some similarities occur in
crystal and it possesses different external symmetries.
The physical operation like rotation, reflection, inversion can be performed on a
crystal. On performing these operations if there is no change in crystal structure, these
operations are called as symmetry operations or symmetry elements.
The physical operations like rotation, inversion, and reflection which leave the lattice
invariant are called symmetry operations.
(A) Axis of symmetry:
If the rotations of the crystal about any axis leave its invariant, it is said to have
rotational symmetry about the axis and the axis is axis of symmetry.
If rotation is carried out through angle  = 2/n, the axis is called n-fold axis of symmetry.
n = 1,  = 3600 , it is identity axis, crystal has infinite number of such axes.

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n = 2,  = 1800, it is two-fold or diad axis.

n = 3,  = 1200, it is three fold or triad axis.
n = 4,  = 900, it is four fold or tetrad axis.
n = 6,  = 1200, it is six fold or hexed axis.
Possible axes of symmetry for cubic crystal are shown below

Fig.15 Rotational axis of symmetry

Therefore, there are 13 rotational axis of symmetry
(B) Plane of symmetry:
 When an imaginary plane can divide the crystal into equal parts such that each part is
exact mirror image of the other, then the crystal is said to have plane of symmetry.

Fig.16 Plane of symmetry

 As shown in following Fig. In a cube there are three planes of symmetry parallel to the
faces of cube.
 Additionally, there are six diagonal planes of symmetry, which are shown in following Fig.
These planes are formed by pairs of apposite parallel edges.

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Fig.17 Diagonal planes of symmetry

 Hence, total number of planes of symmetry in a cubic crystal is = (3+6)=9
(c) Centre of Symmetry:
It is point in the crystal such that a line drawn from any point on the crystal to that
point and produce on other side, at equal distance reproduce identical point. It represents
reflection through point and also known as centre of inversion. In a cubic system there is
one centre of symmetry.

Fig.18 Centre of symmetry

Miller Indices:
Miller indices are defined as the set of three smallest possible integers (numbers) which
indicate the orientation of a plane or group of parallel planes in a crystal lattice.
The regular and periodic arrangement of atoms in a crystal gives rise to parallel atomic
planes as shown in following Fig.

Fig.19 Different ways of drawing lattice planes

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Determination of Miller Indices:

The steps in the determination of Miller indices of a plane are illustrated with the aid of
following Fig. Consider the plane ABC which cuts 2 units along x-axis, 1 unit along y-axis
and 3 units along the z-axis.

Fig.20 Miller Indices

Step I:
Find the intercept of the plane along the three axes X, Y, and Z. Let it be OA, OB, and
OC. Express the intercept in terms of multiple of axial length i.e., lattice parameters. Let
them be OA=pa, OB=qb, and OC=rc where p, q and r are the intercept numerical values
along the three axis.
Example: p=2. Q=1, and r=3
Hence, OA: OB: OC= pa: qb: rc
= 2a: 1b: 3c
Therefore the intercepts are 2a, 1b, and 3c along the three axes.
Step II:
Find the reciprocal of the numerical intercept values.
1 11
i.e.,
pqr

 As shown in above example the reciprocal of the numerical intercept values are
111
213
Step III:
Convert these reciprocals into whole numbers by multiplying each with their least
count multiple (LCM). In this example the LCM is 6.

 6 1 , 1
6 , 6 
1
2 1 3

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3 6 2
Step III:
Enclose these numbers in bracket. This represents the indices of the given plane,
and is called the Miller indices of the plane. For example the Miller indices are (362).
It is generally represented by (hkl). It can also be noticed that
1 11
h:k :l 
pqr

Features of Miller Indices:

1. Miller indices do not represent single plane, but a set of parallel equidistant planes.
2. If a plane is parallel to certain axis, corresponding index is zero.
3. If intercept of plane is negative on certain axis, a bar is placed on corresponding Miller
index.
4. {h k l} represents all the sets of similar planes e.g.{100} represents (100), (010), (001),
(100), (010), (001) planes.
5. If (hkl) are the Miller indices of a set of parallel planes in cubic crystal, interplaner
distance is given by,
a
d
h  k2 l2
2

Fig.21 Different planes and their miller indices

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Relation between Interplaner distance and lattice constant of Cubic Crystal:

Consider the cubic crystal lattice of lattice constant ‘a’. Let (hkl) be the miller indices of
some planes. These planes are drawn by finding intercept as follows.
Miller indices: h, k, l
1 11
Reciprocals:
hkl

Intercepts a/h, a/k, a/l (in terms of lattice constant)

Let OA= a/h, OB= a/k, OC= a/l,

Fig.22 Interplaner spacing

The point A, B, and C are denoted along X, Y, and Z axes with these intercepts and then by
joining these points plane ABC is drawn. This is one of family of planes (hkl). As shown in
above Fig imagine another plane parallel to the plane ABC passing through O. Draw
perpendicular OD on plane ABC.
The interplaner distance of spacing = d = OD
Le  are the angle made by line ON with X, Y, and Z axes respectively.
From above Fig. it is seen that, OAD is right angle triangle
OD d dh
cos   
OA a / h a

Similarly,
OD d dk OD d dl
cos     cos    
OB a / k a and OC a / k a

But we know that cos2 +cos2+cos2 =1

Using equation (1), (2) and (3) in equation (4) we get

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OD d dh
cos   
OA a / h a

Bragg’s Law:
In 1913, two scientist William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg showed that
constructive interference takes place between the rays scattered by the atoms in different
Bragg’s planes when the condition n=2dsin is obeyed. Where ‘n’ is an integer which
represents the order of reflection. The above condition is known as Bragg’s law. Thus
Bragg’s law is a simple fundamental equation which gives the relation between the
wavelength  of X-rays, the interplaner spacing d and the glancing angle  (the angle at
which the incident rays make with the plane).
Bragg’s law can be utilized to analyze different types of crystal structures.
Derivation of Bragg’s Law:
Consider a crystal consisting of set of parallel planes (Bragg’s planes) separated by a
distance d. Let a narrow beam of monochromic X-rays of wavelength  be incident on the
first plane with glancing angle .

Fig.23 Bragg’s Law

Consider a ray AB which is part of the incident beam scattered by the atom B in the first
plane which is reflected along the direction BC. Similarly consider another parallel ray DE
which is also part of the same incident beam scattered by the atom E in the next adjacent
parallel plane which is reflected along the direction EF.
Constructive interference will take place when the path difference between two
reflected rays from two different planes is an integral multiple of .

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To determine the path difference between the two rays ABC and DEF, two normal’s BP
and BQ are drawn from the point B to the line DE and EF respectively. From the Fig. it is
observed that up to BP the path covered is the same during incidence. From BQ onwards
the parallel rays BC and QF will travel keeping step with each other.
Hence, the excess path travelled by the ray along DEF over that along ABC is given by
PE + EQ
PE EQ
But in the Fig. from  PBE sin   and from  EBQ sin  
BE BE
 sin + BEsin
Or sin
But BE = d (interplaner spacing)
dsin
The condition for constructive interference to take place if =n, where n=1,2,3,…
 n dsin
This equation is called Bragg’s law and  is called glancing angle. This relation is similar
to the relation of ordinary plane diffraction grating. For n=1, we get first order spectrum,
for n=2 we get second-order spectrum and so on.
Bragg’s X-Ray Spectrometer:
Construction:
Bragg’s devised apparatus known as X-ray spectrometer in which crystal was used as
reflection grating. X-ray from X-ray tube was allowed to pass through slits S1 and S2 to get
narrow beam. The beam is allowed to strike on a single crystal C mounted on turn-table,
which can rotate about a vertical axis. An arm rotating about the vertical axis carries on
ionization chamber I. The degree of ionization as the intensity of X-ray beam is measured
by electrometer as shown in Fig (a).
Working:
X-rays beam is made to fall on a crystal at different glancing angles. Corresponding
intensities of reflected X-rays beam are noted down by ionization chamber. The graph is
plotted, the intensity against glancing angle. This is X-ray spectrum; the glancing angles 1,
1, 1 corresponding to peaks in the curve can be read from graph. It is found that

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Sin1:sin2:sin3 : : 1 : 2: 3
This shows that the places refer to first, second and third order reflections. According to
Bragg’s law
 dsin n
 For n = 1, 2, 3 equation above equation is obtained. Hence Bragg’s law is proved.
Limitation of Bragg’s spectrometer is it requires single crystal which is very difficult to
obtain

Fig.25 (a) Bragg’s spectrometer and (b) variation of intensity with glancing angle.

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Crystallography

Questions
Q.1 Define: (i) Space lattice (ii) Basis (iii) Unit cell
Q.2 Describe the seven crystal systems with examples and neat diagrams.
Q.3 Explain Bravais lattice in three dimensions.
Q.4 Draw a neat diagram and write conditions for basis vectors and interfacial angles for
monoclinic and triclinic system.
Q.5 State different characteristics of unit cell.
Q.6 Define coordination number and give its value for SC, BCC, FCC lattices.
Q.7 Derive relation between lattice parameter and density of crystal for cubic system.
Q.8 What is packing fraction? Show that packing fraction for SC, BCC and FCC lattices are
52%, 68% and 74% respectively.
Q.9 Explain the method to determine Miller indices and give important features of it.
Q.10 Define symmetry operations and explain different symmetry elements for cubic
system.
Q.11 State and explain Bragg’s law of X-ray diffraction.
Q.12 Discuss crystal structure analysis by Bragg’s X-ray spectrometer.
Q.13 Write note on construction and working of Bragg’s X-ray spectrometer.

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