VELAMMAL VIDHYASHRAM

SURAPET

PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

ON
P-N JUNCTION DIODE

NAME : [Link]

CLASS : 12AB

ROLL NUMBER :

SSCE -2025 -2026

 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that,[Link] of class XII AB has successfully

completed the project on the topic P-N JUNCTION DIODE under the
guidance of [Link] in partial fulfillment of physics practical
examination conducted by SSCE, CBSE, New Delhi for the academic
year 2025 – 2026.

Signature of teacher in charge Signature of Internal Examiner

Signature of Principal Signature of External Examiner

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the accomplishment of this project successfully, many people have bestowed upon me their
blessings and the heart pledged support. So I am utilizing this opportunity to thank all the people
who have been concerned with my project.

Primarily I would like to thank God Almighty for giving me the strength, knowledge and good
health to complete this project successfully.

Then I would like to thank the Principal of Velammal Vidhyashram for the continuous support
and our Physics teacher whose whole hearted guidance helped me to complete the project. The
suggestions and instructions given by them served as the major contribution in the completion of
this project.

Then I would like to thank my parents and friends who have given me their valuable suggestions
and guidance, that have been instrumental in the completion of this project.

Signature of the Student

 TABLE OF CONTENT

S NO. TOPICS PAGE NO.

1 Introduction 5

2 Aim 5

3 Materials required 5

4 Theory 6

5 Procedure 7

6 Observation 8

7 Precautions 9

8 Sources of error 10

9 Conclusion 10

10 Bibliography 10
 1. INTRODUCTION
Semiconductor materials are a class of materials with electrical conductivity between conductors
and insulators. Key features include a crystalline structure, a band gap that allows control of
electrical properties, and the ability to be doped for specific conductivity modifications. Silicon
and germanium are common semiconductors, and advancements in semiconductor technology
underpin modern electronics, from trA p-n junction is a boundary or interface between two
semiconductor materials—one doped with positive charge carriers (p-type) and the other with
negative charge carriers (ntype).

This junction forms the basis of many electronic components. Under forward bias, it allows
current flow, while under reverse bias, it acts as a barrier. P-n junctions are fundamental to the
operation of diodes, transistors, and other semiconductor devices in electronic [Link]
and integrated circuits to solar.

2. Aim
The aim of studying a PN junction diode for a Class 12 physics practical is to observe and verify
its characteristics, specifically its I-V curve, demonstrating that it conducts current primarily in
one direction (forward bias) and blocks it in the other (reverse bias). T

his experiment helps understand the fundamental principles of semiconductor device operation,
including the concept of a potential barrier and how it changes with applied voltage, which is
crucial for understanding rectification and other applications like LEDs and photodiodes.

3. Materials for Experiments/Projects:

 P-N junction diode: This is the component you will be experimenting with.
 Battery: Two batteries, often 3V and 50V, are used for forward and reverse biasing.
 Rheostat: A high resistance rheostat is used to vary the voltage and current in the circuit.
 Voltmeter: To measure voltage across the diode (e.g., 0-3V and 0-50V ranges).
 Ammeter: To measure current through the diode (e.g., 0-100 mA and 0-100 µA ranges).
 One-way key: To control the flow of current in the circuit.
 Connecting wires: To make the electrical connections.
 Sandpaper: Used for cleaning the connections.

4. THEORY
The theory of the PN junction diode involves the formation of a depletion region and potential
barrier at the junction of P-type and N-type semiconductors due to carrier diffusion. This creates
a one-way valve for electric current: current flows easily when the diode is forward biased (P
connected to positive, N to negative) by reducing the depletion region.
 1. Formation of the PN Junction
 Doping:
P-type semiconductor material has an excess of holes (positive charge carriers), while N-type
material has an excess of electrons (negative charge carriers).
 Diffusion:
When these two types of semiconductors are joined to form a PN junction, a concentration
gradient causes electrons from the N-side to diffuse into the P-side and holes from the P-side to
diffuse into the N-side.

2. Depletion Region and Potential Barrier

 Depletion Region:
As carriers diffuse across the junction, they leave behind fixed, immobile ions – positive ions on
the N-side and negative ions on the P-side. This creates a region depleted of free charge carriers
called the depletion region.
 Potential Barrier:
These fixed ions create an internal electric field across the depletion region, which prevents
further diffusion of majority carriers. This electric field results in a potential difference known
as the potential barrier.

3. Forward Bias
 Connection:
The positive terminal of an external voltage source is connected to the P-side, and the negative
terminal is connected to the N-side.
 Effect:
This applied voltage opposes the built-in potential barrier, reducing the width of the depletion
region and allowing current to flow easily.

4. Reverse Bias
 Connection:
The positive terminal of an external voltage source is connected to the N-side, and the negative
terminal is connected to the P-side.
 Effect:
The applied voltage reinforces the potential barrier, increasing the width of the depletion
region. This blocks the flow of majority carriers and thus current.
 5. The Diode's Function
 The PN junction diode allows current to flow in only one direction (forward bias) while
blocking it in the opposite direction (reverse bias). This property is fundamental to its use in
applications like rectification.

5. PROCEDURE:
To understand a PN junction diode's behavior, procedures involve setting up a circuit with a
diode, variable voltage source, resistors, and meters to observe itForward Bias Procedure:
1. Circuit Assembly:
Connect the P-type (anode) side of the diode to the positive terminal of a DC variable power
supply, and the N-type (cathode) to the negative terminal, usually in series with a current-
limiting resistor.
2. Apply Voltage:
Start with the minimum voltage and gradually increase the forward bias voltage using the
rheostat (variable resistor).
3. Record Readings:
Note the readings on the voltmeter (forward voltage) and ammeter (forward current) at different
steps.
4. Observe Characteristics:
Plot the recorded data to obtain the forward V-I characteristic curve, showing a gradual current
increase followed by a sharp rise after the knee voltage.
Reverse Bias Procedure:
1. Circuit Assembly: Connect the N-type side of the diode to the positive terminal of the
power supply and the P-type side to the negative terminal.
2. Apply Voltage: Apply reverse bias voltage and observe the milliammeter readings.
3. Observe Characteristics: Note that the reverse current remains very small (leakage
current). The reverse current remains nearly constant even as the voltage increases, until a
breakdown point is reached.
Key Principles:
 Forward Bias:
Connect the P-side to the positive terminal and the N-side to the negative terminal. This reduces
the depletion region, lowers the potential barrier, and allows a large current to flow.
 Reverse Bias:
Connect the P-side to the negative terminal and the N-side to the positive terminal. This widens
the depletion region and blocks current flow, allowing only a tiny leakage current.
 Knee Voltage:
The minimum forward voltage (around 0.7V for silicon, 0.3V for germanium) at which the
diode starts conducting significant current.
 Depletion Region:
The region near the junction with very few free charge carriers. Forward bias shrinks it, while
reverse bias widens it.

6. Observation:

I. In forward bias:
The diode conducts current after a specific voltage called the knee voltage is reached, and the
current increases rapidly and non-linearly with applied voltage; in reverse bias, the diode blocks
current until the breakdown voltage is reached, at which point a large reverse current flows,
though this usually damages the diode. The experiment involves measuring the current and
voltage readings and plotting them on a V-I characteristic curve to demonstrate these unique
unidirectional conductivity In Forward Bias
1. Voltage Increases Current:
As the applied forward voltage increases from zero, the current through the diode remains
negligible until it reaches the knee voltage.
2. Knee Voltage:
For silicon diodes, the knee voltage is typically around 0.7 V, and for Germanium diodes, it's
around 0.3 V.
3. Rapid Current Increase:
Once the knee voltage is reached, the potential barrier is overcome, and a significant forward
current begins to flow.
4. Exponential Relationship:
The current increases exponentially with the applied voltage beyond the knee point, showing a
non-linear characteristic.
properties.

II. In Reverse Bias:

1. High Resistance:
The diode offers very high resistance in the reverse-biased condition, effectively blocking the
flow of current.
2. Reverse Saturation Current:
A very small, almost negligible current, called the reverse saturation current, flows due to
minority carriers.
3. Breakdown Voltage:
If the reverse bias voltage is increased to a certain value, known as the breakdown voltage, the
diode experiences a rapid increase in reverse current.
 Overall Observation:
 Unidirectional Current:
The most crucial observation is that the PN junction diode conducts current only in one
direction (forward bias) and blocks it in the other (reverse bias), which is its defining
characteristic.

 Rectification:
This unidirectional property makes the diode suitable for rectifying alternating current (AC)
into direct current (DC).
 Non-Linear I-V Curve:
The V-I characteristic curve, plotted on a graph with voltage on the x-axis and current on the y-
axis, clearly illustrates the non-linear nature of the diode's behavior.
 7. Precautions

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Key should be used when the circuit is being used.
3. Beyond breakdown, forward bias voltage should not be applied.
4. Beyond breakdown, reverse bias voltage should not be applied.

8. Sources Of Error
Faulty junction diode might be supplied.

9. Conclusion:
In conclusion, p-n junctions represent a foundational and versatile element in the realm of
semiconductor physics and electronic device engineering. Through the intentional combination
of p-type and ntype semiconductors, these junctions enable the controlled flow of electrical
current, forming the basis for a plethora of electronic components. The ability to manipulate the
behavior of p-n junctions through forward and reverse biasing has paved the way for the
development of essential devices such as diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits. These
devices, in turn, have become the building blocks of modern electronics, influencing various
industries and technologies.

While p-n junctions offer remarkable advantages, including their role in energy-efficient light-
emitting diodes (LEDs), solar cells, and the precision control of electronic signals, they are not
without limitations. Temperature sensitivity, breakdown voltage concerns, and manufacturing
challenges are among the factors that engine

In practical terms, the applications of p-n junctions are extensive, ranging from power supplies
and communication devices to sensors and renewable energy technologies. As research advances
and technology evolves, the limitations of p-n junctions are being mitigated, and innovations are
expanding

In summary, the significance of p-n junctions in the field of electronics cannot be overstated.
Their fundamental role in shaping the landscape of modern technology underscores their
importance, and ongoing research and development aim to harness their potential while
addressing existing limitations. The horizons of their applications and scientists continually
strive to address.

10. Bibliography
 [Link]
 [Link]
 NCERT Textbook Class – XII
 NCERT Physics Lab Manual
 S.L. Arora